Precursors

A 6th century Byzantine polycandelon

Hanging light fixtures were known since ancient times, and a circular ceramic lamp with 32 points for candles or fuses dating to the Roman period has been found.^[9] The Roman term lychnuchus or lychnus, however, can refer to candlestick, floor lamps, candelabra, or chandelier.^[10] In the Byzantine period, flat circular metallic structures suspended with chains that can hold oil lamps known as polycandela (singular polycandelon) were commonly used.^[11] A development of late antiquity and further evolving during the early Middle Ages, polycandela were used in places churches, and synagogues and took the shape of a bronze or iron frame holding a varying number of globular or conical glass beakers provided with a wick and filled with oil.^[11][12] They may be hung between columns, over the altar or tombs of saints.^[13]

Chandeliers in Hagia Sophia, similar lighting devices may have been present in the Byzantine period

Huge hanging lamps in Hagia Sophia were described by Paul the Silentiary in 563:^[14] "And beneath each chain he has caused to be fitted silver discs, hanging circle-wise in the air, round the space in the center of the church. Thus these discs, pendant from their lofty courses, form a coronet above the heads of men. They have been pierced too by the weapon of the skillful workman, in order that they may receive shafts of fire-wrought glass and hold light on high for men at night."^[15] Polycandela were also commonly used to furnish households up until the 8th century.^[16] A later variation of the polycandelon took the shape of a lamp stand, placed on legs rather than hung by chains, some being known from the Seljuq realm in the 12th–13th century.^[17]

The 11th century Hezilo chandelier

Early chandeliers

The earliest candle chandeliers were used in religious building in medieval times. These may be large circular or crown-shaped wheel chandelier recorded in Germany, France, and the Netherlands in the 11th and 12th century. These chandeliers have prickets (spikes for holding candles) and cups for oil and wicks. A hammered iron corona with floral decorated was recorded in the St Paul's Cathedral in London in the 13th century.^[18] The iron chandeliers may have polychrome paint as well as jewel and enamelwork decorations.^[18] Medieval chandeliers may also refer to lights that could be moved to different rooms.^[19]

A medieval chandelier, from King René's Tournament Book, 1460

Wooden cross-beam chandeliers were the early form of chandelier used in a domestic setting and they were found in the households of the wealthy in the medieval period. On each of the four arms a candle may be placed; some that can hold two candles in each arm were called "double candlestick".^[18] While simple in design compared to later chandeliers, such wooden chandeliers were still found in the court of Charles VI of France in the 15th century and a double candlestick was listed in the inventory of the estate of Henry VIII of England in the 16th century.^[18] Later gilded carved wood may also be used to make chandelier.^[6]

From the 15th century, more complex forms of chandeliers became popular decorative features in palaces and homes of nobility, clergy and merchants. Their high cost made chandeliers symbols of luxury and status. Ivory chandeliers in the palace of the king of Mutapa, were depicted in a 17th century description by Olfert Dapper.^[20]

Brass chandelier

15th-century chandelier depicted in the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck

A variety of metals were used to make chandeliers, including iron, pewter, bronze, or more prestigiously silver and even gold. Brass, however, has the warm appearance of gold while being considerably cheaper, and also easy to work with, it therefore became a popular choice for making chandelier.^[21] Brass or brass-like latten were been used to make chandeliers since the medieval period, and many were made with brass-type alloy from Dinant (now in Belgium, brass ware from the town was known as dinanderie) until the mid-15th century.^[22] The metal chandeliers may have a central support with curved or S-shaped arms attached, and at the end of each arms is a drip-pan and nozzle for holding candle; by the 15h century, candle nozzles were used instead of prickets to hold the candles since candle production technique allowed for the production of identically sized candles.^[22] Many such brass chandeliers can be seen depicted in Dutch and Flemish paintings from the 15th to 17th centuries.^[23] These Dutch and Flemish chandeliers may be decorated with stylised floral embellishments as well as Gothic symbols and emblems and religious figures.^[24] Large number of brass chandeliers existed, but most of the early brass chandeliers did not survived destruction during the Reformation.^[25]

A Dutch brass chandelier with curved arms and a large sphere in the Portuguese Synagogue in Amsterdam

The Dutch brass chandeliers have distinctive features – a large brass sphere underneath a central stem and six curved low-swooping arms. The globe helps to keep the chandelier upright and reflect the lights from candle, and the arms are curved downward to bring the candles to the level of the sphere to allow for maximum reflection.^[26] The arms of early brass chandelier may also have drooped even lower through use over time as the brass used in the earlier period was softer due to lower zinc content.^[27] The features of Dutch brass chandelier were widely copied in other countries, and the form is arguably the most successful and long-lasting of all types of chandeliers.^[28] Dutch brass were popular across Europe, particularly in England, as well as in the United States. Variations of the Dutch brass chandelier were produced, for example there may be multiple tiers of the arms, or the arms may emerge from the globe itself.^[29] By the early 18th century, ornate cast ormolu forms with long, curved arms and many candles were in the homes of many in the growing merchant class.

Glass and crystal chandelier

Chandeliers at the Palace of Versailles

Chandeliers began to be decorated with carved rock crystal (quartz) of Italian origin in the 16th century, a highly expensive form. The rock crystal pieces were hung from a metal frame as pendants or drops. The metal frame of French chandeliers may have a central stem onto which arms are attached, later some may form a cage without a central stem. Few, however, could afford these rock crystal chandeliers as they were costly to produce. In the 17th century multi-faceted crystals that can reflect light from the candles were used to decorate chandelier and they were called chandeliers de crystal in France.^[30] The chandeliers produced in France in the 17th century were in the French Baroque style, and rococo in the 18th century. French rock crystal chandelier found its finest expression under Louis XIV, as exemplified by chandeliers at the Palace of Versailles.^[31] Rock crystal began to be replaced by cut glass in the late 17th century.^[30] and examples of chandeliers made with rock crystal as well as Bohemian glass can be found in the Palace of Versailles.^[32] Crystal chandeliers in the early period were literally made of crystals; glass, although not crystalline in structure, continued to be called crystal, after much clearer cut glass that resembled crystal was produced from the late 17th-century. What are called crystal chandeliers now are almost always made of cut glass. Quartz is nevertheless still more reflective than the best glass.^[33] France used imported glass for its chandeliers until the late 18th century when the country produced its own high quality glass.^[34]

English glass chandeliers in the Bath Assembly Rooms, by William Parker in 1771.^[35]

In Britain, Lead glass was developed by George Ravenscroft c. 1675, which allowed for the production of cheaper lead crystal that resembles rock crystal without the crisseling defect of other glass.^[36] It is also relatively soft compared to soda glass, allowing it to be cut or faceted without shattering. Lead glass also rings when struck, unlike soda glass which has no resonance.^[37] The clearness and light scattering properties of lead glass made it a popular addition to the form, and conventionally, lead glass may be the only glass that can be described as crystal. The first mention of glass chandelier in an advertisement appeared in 1727 (as schandelier) in London.^[3] A notable producer of glass chandeliers was William Parker. The design of the first English true glass chandelier was influenced by Dutch and Flemish brass chandeliers.^[3] The chandeliers are largely made of glass, with the metal parts limited to the central stem and receiver plates and bowls. Silver plating may also be placed inside the glass stem to create the illusion that the chandelier is made entirely of glass.^[33] A glass bowl at the bottom disguises the metal disc onto which the glass arms are attached.^[3] The early glass chandeliers were moulded, often with solid rope-twist arms. Later cuts to the arms were introduced to provide sparkle, and additional ornaments added. Cut glass pendant drops were hung from the frame, initially only a small number, but in increasingly large number by c.1770.^[38] By the 1800s, the decorative ornaments became so abundant that the underlying structure of the chandelier was obscured. The chandeliers may follow a rococo style, and later neo-classical style, for example those designed by Robert and James Adam.^[38] Neoclassical motifs in cast metal but also in carved and gilded wood were common elements in these chandeliers. Chandeliers made in this style also drew heavily on the aesthetic of ancient Greece and Rome, incorporating clean lines, classical proportions and mythological creatures.^[34]

A Bohemian glass chandelier

Bohemia in present-day Czech Republic has been producing for centuries, and Bohemian glass contains potash that gives it a clear colourless appearance, Production of crystal chandeliers appeared in Bohemia and Germany, and many early chandeliers were copies of designs from London. Glass chandelier became the dominant form of chandelier from about 1750 until at least 1900, and Czech Republic remains the greatest producer of glass chandelier today.^[30] Bohemian style was largely successful across Europe and its biggest draw was the chance to obtain spectacular light refraction due to facets and bevels of crystal prisms.

A Murano glass chandelier

Venice has been a centre of glass production, particularly on the island of Murano. The Venetians created a form of soda–lime glass by adding manganese dioxide that is clear like crystal, which they called cristallo.^[39] This glass was typically used to make mirrors, but around 1700, Italian glass factories in Murano started creating new kinds of artistic light fixtures. Since Murano glass is hard and brittle, it is not suitable for cutting/faceting; however, it is lighter, softer and more malleable when heated, and Venetian glassmakers relied upon the properties of their glass to create elaborate forms of chandelier.^[37] Typical features of a Murano chandelier are the intricate arabesques of leaves, flowers and fruits that would be enriched by coloured glass, made possible by the specific type of glass used in Murano.^[39] Great skill and time was required to twist and shape a chandelier precisely.

The ornate type of murano chandelier is called ciocca (literally "bouquet of flowers"), for the characteristic decorations of glazed polychrome flowers. The most sumptuous consisted of a metal frame covered with small elements in blown glass, transparent or colored, with decorations of flowers, fruits and leaves, while simpler models had arms made with unique pieces of glass. Their shape was inspired by an original architectural concept: the space on the inside is left almost empty, since decorations are spread all around the central support, distanced from it by the length of the arms. One of the common uses of the huge Murano chandeliers was the interior lighting of theatres and rooms in important palaces.^[40] Despite periods of decline and revival, designs of Murano glass chandeliers have stayed relatively constant through the years, and modern productions of these chandelier may still be stylistically nearly identical to those made in the 18th or 19th centuries.^[39]

19th century

A 19th century French chandelier

The 19th century was a period of great changes and development; the industrial revolution and the growth of wealth from the industries greatly increased the market for chandeliers, new methods of lighting and better techniques of production emerged, and countries such as the United States also became significant producers of chandeliers.^[41] New styles and more complex and elaborate chandeliers also appeared. The market for chandelier increased greatly in the 19th century, and chandelier reached a peak of production. France, which only produced its own high-quality glass in the late 18th century, became renown as a producer of the finest quality of chandelier. One of the best-known manufacturers Baccarat was founded and it started making chandeliers in 1824. In England, F. & C. Osler produced a large quantity of chandeliers, the great proportion of which went to India, the richest market for chandeliers at that time.^[30]

A Regency-style chandelier with a tent and bag design

In England, the imposition of the Glass Excise Act led to a new style of chandelier created. Chandelier makers, in order to avoid paying the tax, reused broken glass pieces cut into crystal icicles and strung together, and hung from circular frames in the form of tent or canopy above a hoop and a bag below, with tiered sheets that resembled waterfalls. A large number of crystals are used to make such chandelier, and many may contain over 1,000 pieces of crystals. The central stem is hidden by the crystals. These forms of Regency-era chandeliers were popular all over Europe.^[38] In France, chandeliers of similar designs are described as Empire style. After the Glass Excise Act was repealed, chandeliers with glass arms became popular again, but they became larger, bolder and heavily decorated.^[38] The world's largest English chandelier (by Hancock Rixon & Dunt and probably F. & C. Osler). It is in the Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul, and has 750 lamps and weighs 4.5 tons.^[42]

Chanderliers in the Banqueting Room of Royal Pavilion were lit by gas^[43]

In the 19th century, a variety of different method of new methods for producing light that are brighter, cleaner or more convenient than candles began to be used. These included colza oil (Argand lamp), kerosene/paraffin, and gas.^[44] Due to its brightness, gas was initially only used for public lighting, later it also appeared in homes.^[45] As gas lighting caught on, branched ceiling fixtures called gasoliers (a portmanteau of gas and chandelier) were produced. Many candle chandeliers were converted. Gasoliers may have only slight variations in the decorations from chandeliers, but the arms were hollow to carry the gas to the burners.^[30] Examples of gasoliers were the extravagant chandeliers installed in the Royal Pavilion in Brighton in 1821.^[43] While popular, gas lighting was considered too bright and harsh on the eyes, and lacking the pleasing quality of candlelight.^[46] Shades that surround the gas light were then added to reduce the glare. Gas lighting was eventually replaced by electric light bulbs in the early 20th century.^[47]

A late-19th century electrolier in Glasgow

Electric light began to be introduced widely in the late 19th century. Some chandeliers used both gas and electricity, with gas nozzles pointing upward while the light bulbs hung downward.^[48] As distribution of electricity widened, and supplies became dependable, electric-only chandeliers became standard. Another portmanteau word, electrolier, was coined for these, but nowadays they are most commonly still called chandeliers even though no candles are used. These chandeliers requires electrical wirings, metals and light bulbs, but such light bulbs often were not aesthetically pleasing,^[30] particularly as large number of light bulbs close together can produce too much glare.^[49] Shades may also be used for the bulbs of these electroliers.

Modern chandeliers

The rotaunda chandelier at the V&A Museum

At the turn of the 20th century, chandelier still enjoyed the status it had the previous century. Of the many lighting fixtures made that conformed to the popular contemporary styles of Art Nouveau, Art Deco and Modernism, few could be described properly as chandeliers.^[50] The popularity of chandelier declined in popularity in the 20th century. A vast array of lighting choices became available, and chandeliers often do not fit the aesthetics of modern architecture and interior design. Light fittings of avant-garde form and material however started to be made c. 1940.^[50] A wide variety of chandelier of modern design appeared, ranging from the minimalist to the highly extravagant. Towards the end of the 20th century, the popularity of chandelier revived. A number of glass artists such as Dale Chihuly who produced chandeliers emerged. Chandeliers were often used as decorative focal points for rooms, although some do not necessarily illuminate.

Incandescent light bulbs became the most common source of lighting for modern chandeliers in the 20th century, and a variety of electrical lights such as fluorescent light, halogen. LED lamp are also used. Many antique chandeliers not designed for electrical wiring have also been adapted for electricity. Modern chandelier produced in older styles and antique chandeliers wired for electricity usually use imitation candles, where incandescent or LED light bulbs are shaped like candle flames. These light bulbs may be dimmable to adjust the brightness. Some may use bulbs containing a shimmering gas discharge.^[51]

The chandelier in Süleymaniye Mosque

One of the largest chandeliers ever produced, for the Al Ameen Mosque in Muscat (Oman), shortly before delivery

Sources

• Davison, Sandra; Newton, R.G. (2008). Conservation and Restoration of Glass. Taylor & Francis. pp. 69–72. ISBN 9781136415517.
• Hilliard, Elizebeth (2001). Chandeliers. Bulfinch Press, Little Brown. ISBN 978-0821227688.
• McCaffety, Kerri (2006). The Chandelier Through the Centuries. Savoy House. ISBN 978-0-9709336-5-2.
• Papadopoulos, Costas; Moyes, Holley (2021). The Oxford Handbook of Light in Archaeology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198788218.</ref>
• Smith, John P. (1994). The art of enlightenment : a history of glass chandelier manufacture and design. Mallett.
• Weitzmann, Kurt (1979). Age of Spirituality. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0870991790.
• Katz, Cheryl and Jeffrey. Chandeliers Rockport Publishers: 2001. ISBN 978-1-56496-805-0.
• Parissien, Steven. Regency Style. Phaidon: 1992. ISBN 0-7148-3454-8.

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