In particle physics, a glueball (also gluonium, gluon-ball) is a hypothetical composite particle.[1] It consists solely of gluon particles, without valence quarks. Such a state is possible because gluons carry color charge and experience the strong interaction between themselves. Glueballs are extremely difficult to identify in particle accelerators, because they mix with ordinary meson states.[2] In pure gauge theory, glueballs are the only states of the spectrum and some of them are stable.[3]

Theoretical calculations show that glueballs should exist at energy ranges accessible with current collider technology. However, due to the aforementioned difficulty (among others), they have so far not been observed and identified with certainty,[4] although phenomenological calculations have suggested that an experimentally identified glueball candidate, denoted , has properties consistent with those expected of a Standard Model glueball.[5]

The prediction that glueballs exist is one of the most important predictions of the Standard Model of particle physics that has not yet been confirmed experimentally.[6] Glueballs are the only particles predicted by the Standard Model with total angular momentum (J) (sometimes called "intrinsic spin") that could be either 2 or 3 in their ground states.

Experimental evidence was announced in 2021, by the TOTEM collaboration at the LHC in collaboration with the DØ collaboration at the former Tevatron collider at Fermilab, of odderon (a composite gluonic particle with odd C-parity) exchange. This exchange, associated with a quarkless three-gluon vector glueball, was identified in the comparison of proton–proton and proton–antiproton scattering.[7][8][9]

Properties

In principle, it is theoretically possible for all properties of glueballs to be calculated exactly and derived directly from the equations and fundamental physical constants of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) without further experimental input. So, the predicted properties of these hypothetical particles can be described in exquisite detail using only Standard Model physics which have wide acceptance in the theoretical physics literature. But, there is considerable uncertainty in the measurement of some of the relevant key physical constants, and the QCD calculations are so difficult that solutions to these equations are almost always numerical approximations (calculated using several very different methods). This can lead to variation in theoretical predictions of glueball properties, like mass and branching ratios in glueball decays.

Constituent particles and color charge

Theoretical studies of glueballs have focused on glueballs consisting of either two gluons or three gluons, by analogy to mesons and baryons that have two and three quarks respectively. As in the case of mesons and baryons, glueballs would be QCD color charge neutral. The baryon number of a glueball is zero.

Total angular momentum

Double-gluon glueballs can have total angular momentum J = 0 (which are either scalar or pseudo-scalar) or J = 2 (tensor). Triple-gluon glueballs can have total angular momentum J = 1 (vector boson) or 3 (third-order tensor boson). All glueballs have integer total angular momentum which implies that they are bosons rather than fermions.

Glueballs are the only particles predicted by the Standard Model with total angular momentum ( J ) (sometimes called "intrinsic spin") that could be either 2 or 3 in their ground states, although mesons made of two quarks with J = 0 and J = 1 with similar masses have been observed and excited states of other mesons can have these values of total angular momentum.

Electric charge

All glueballs would have an electric charge of zero, as gluons themselves do not have an electric charge.

Mass and parity

Glueballs are predicted by quantum chromodynamics to be massive, despite the fact that gluons themselves have zero rest mass in the Standard Model. Glueballs with all four possible combinations of quantum numbers P (spatial parity) and C (charge parity) for every possible total angular momentum have been considered, producing at least fifteen possible glueball states including excited glueball states that share the same quantum numbers but have differing masses with the lightest states having masses as low as 1.4 GeV/c2 (for a glueball with quantum numbers J = 0, P = +1, C = +1, or equivalently J PC = 0++), and the heaviest states having masses as great as almost 5 GeV/c2 (for a glueball with quantum numbers J = 0, P = +1, C = −1, or J PC = 0+−).[4]

These masses are on the same order of magnitude as the masses of many experimentally observed mesons and baryons, as well as to the masses of the tau lepton, charm quark, bottom quark, some hydrogen isotopes, and some helium isotopes.

Stability and decay channels

Just as all Standard Model mesons and baryons, except the proton, are unstable in isolation, all glueballs are predicted by the Standard Model to be unstable in isolation, with various QCD calculations predicting the total decay width (which is functionally related to half-life) for various glueball states. QCD calculations also make predictions regarding the expected decay patterns of glueballs.[10][11] For example, glueballs would not have radiative or two photon decays, but would have decays into pairs of pions, pairs of kaons, or pairs of eta mesons.[10]

Practical impact on macroscopic low energy physics

Feynman diagram of a glueball (G) decaying to two pions (
π
). Such decays help the study of and search for glueballs.[12]

Because Standard Model glueballs are so ephemeral (decaying almost immediately into more stable decay products) and are only generated in high energy physics, glueballs only arise synthetically in the natural conditions found on Earth that humans can easily observe. They are scientifically notable mostly because they are a testable prediction of the Standard Model, and not because of phenomenological impact on macroscopic processes, or their engineering applications.

Lattice QCD simulations

Lattice QCD provides a way to study the glueball spectrum theoretically and from first principles. Some of the first quantities calculated using lattice QCD methods (in 1980) were glueball mass estimates.[13] Morningstar and Peardon[14] computed in 1999 the masses of the lightest glueballs in QCD without dynamical quarks. The three lowest states are tabulated below. The presence of dynamical quarks would slightly alter these data, but also makes the computations more difficult. Since that time calculations within QCD (lattice and sum rules) find the lightest glueball to be a scalar with mass in the range of about 1000–1700 MeV/c2.[4] Lattice predictions for scalar and pseudoscalar glueballs, including their excitations, were confirmed by Dyson–Schwinger/Bethe–Salpeter equations in Yang–Mills theory.[15]

J PC mass
0++ 1730±80 MeV/c2
2++ 2400±120 MeV/c2
0−+ 2590±130 MeV/c2

Experimental candidates

Particle accelerator experiments are often able to identify unstable composite particles and assign masses to those particles to a precision of approximately 10 MeV/c2, without being able to immediately assign to the particle resonance that is observed all of the properties of that particle. Scores of such particles have been detected, although particles detected in some experiments but not others can be viewed as doubtful. Some of the candidate particle resonances that could be glueballs, although the evidence is not definitive, include the following:

Vector, pseudo-vector, or tensor glueball candidates

  • X(3020) observed by the BaBar collaboration is a candidate for an excited state of the J PC = 2−+, 1+− or 1−− glueball states with a mass of about 3.02 GeV/c2.[6]

Scalar glueball candidates

  • f0(500) also known as σ – the properties of this particle are possibly consistent with a glueball of mass 1000 MeV/c2 or 1500 MeV/c2.[4]
  • f0(980) – the structure of this composite particle is consistent with the existence of a light glueball.[4]
  • f0(1370) – existence of this resonance is disputed but is a candidate for a glueball–meson mixing state[4]
  • f0(1500) – existence of this resonance is undisputed but its status as a glueball–meson mixing state or pure glueball is not well established.[4]
  • f0(1710) – existence of this resonance is undisputed but its status as a glueball–meson mixing state or pure glueball is not well established.[4]

Other candidates

  • Gluon jets at the LEP experiment show a 40% excess over theoretical expectations of electromagnetically neutral clusters which suggests that electromagnetically neutral particles expected in gluon-rich environments such as glueballs are likely to be present.[4]

Many of these candidates have been the subject of active investigation for at least eighteen years.[10] The GlueX experiment has been specifically designed to produce more definitive experimental evidence of glueballs.[16]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Close, Frank; Page, Phillip R. (November 1998). "Glueballs". Scientific American. 279 (5): 80–85. JSTOR 26058158.
  2. ↑ Vincent Mathieu; Nikolai Kochelev; Vicente Vento (2009). "The Physics of Glueballs". International Journal of Modern Physics E. 18 (1): 1–49. arXiv:0810.4453. Bibcode:2009IJMPE..18....1M. doi:10.1142/S0218301309012124. S2CID 119229404. Glueball on arxiv.org
  3. ↑ Shuryak, E. (2021). "9". Nonperturbative Topological Phenomena in QCD and Related Theories. Springer. p. 233. ISBN 978-3030629892.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Wolfgang Ochs (2013). "The status of glueballs". Journal of Physics G. 40 (4): 043001. arXiv:1301.5183. Bibcode:2013JPhG...40d3001O. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/40/4/043001. S2CID 73696704.
  5. ↑ Frederic Brünner; Anton Rebhan (2015-09-21). "Nonchiral Enhancement of Scalar Glueball Decay in the Witten–Sakai–Sugimoto Model". Phys. Rev. Lett. 115 (13): 131601. arXiv:1504.05815. Bibcode:2015PhRvL.115m1601B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.131601. PMID 26451541. S2CID 14043746.
  6. 1 2 Hsiao, Y.K.; Geng, C.Q. (2013). "Identifying glueball at 3.02 GeV in baryonic B decays". Physics Letters B. 727 (1–3): 168–171. arXiv:1302.3331. Bibcode:2013PhLB..727..168H. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2013.10.008. S2CID 119235634.
  7. ↑ D0 collaboration†; TOTEM Collaboration‡; Abazov, V. M.; Abbott, B.; Acharya, B. S.; Adams, M.; Adams, T.; Agnew, J. P.; Alexeev, G. D.; Alkhazov, G.; Alton, A. (2021-08-04). "Odderon Exchange from Elastic Scattering Differences between $pp$ and $p\overline{p}$ Data at 1.96 TeV and from $pp$ Forward Scattering Measurements". Physical Review Letters. 127 (6): 062003. arXiv:2012.03981. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.062003. hdl:10138/333366. PMID 34420329. S2CID 237267938.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ Chalmers, Matthew (9 March 2021). "Odderon discovered". CERN Courier. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
  9. ↑ Csörgő, T.; Novák, T.; Ster, A.; Szanyi, I. (23 February 2021). "Evidence of Odderon-exchange from scaling properties of elastic scattering at TeV energies". The European Physical Journal C. Springer Nature Switzerland AG. 81 (180): 180. arXiv:1912.11968. Bibcode:2021EPJC...81..180C. doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-021-08867-6. ISSN 1434-6052.
  10. 1 2 3 Taki, Walter (1996). "Search for Glueballs" (PDF). Stanford Linear Accelerator. Stanford University.
  11. ↑ Eshraim, Walaa I.; Janowski, Stanislaus (2013). "Branching ratios of the pseudoscalar glueball with a mass of 2.6 GeV". arXiv:1301.3345. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  12. ↑ T. Cohen; F. J. Llanes-Estrada; J. R. Pelaez; J. Ruiz de Elvira (2014). "Non-ordinary light meson couplings and the 1/Nc expansion". Physical Review D. 90 (3): 036003. arXiv:1405.4831. Bibcode:2014PhRvD..90c6003C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.90.036003. S2CID 53313057.
  13. ↑ B. Berg. Plaquette–plaquette correlations in the su(2) lattice gauge theory. Phys. Lett., B97:401, 1980.
  14. ↑ Colin J. Morningstar; Mike Peardon (1999). "Glueball spectrum from an anisotropic lattice study". Physical Review D. 60 (3): 034509. arXiv:hep-lat/9901004. Bibcode:1999PhRvD..60c4509M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.60.034509. S2CID 18787544.
  15. ↑ M. Huber, C. S. Fischer, H. Sanchis-Alepuz, Spectrum of scalar and pseudoscalar glueballs from functional methods. Eur.Phys.J.C 80 (2020) 11, 1077
  16. ↑ "The Physics of GlueX".
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