Yettishar
يەتتەشەھەر خانلىقى (Uyghur)
Yettesheher Khanliqi (ULY)
1864–1877
Flag of Yettishar
Flag from 1864 to 1873 (left) and 1873 to 1877 (right)
Map of the Dungan Revolt
Map of the Dungan Revolt
StatusVassal of the Ottoman Empire (1873–1877)
CapitalKashgar
Religion
Sunni Islam
GovernmentIslamic absolute monarchy
Emir 
• 1864–1865
Ghazi Khatib Khoja[1]
• 1865–1877
Yakub Beg
History 
• Established
12 November 1864
18 December 1877
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Qing Empire
Qing Empire
Today part ofChina
Yettishar
Uyghur name
Uyghurيەتتەشەھەر خانلىقى‎
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese哲德沙爾汗國
Simplified Chinese哲德沙尔汗国

Yettishar[lower-alpha 1] (Chagatai: یته شهر; Uyghur: يەتتەشەھەر; lit. 'Seven Cities' or 'Heptapolis'), also known as Kashgaria,[4] was a Turkic state that existed in Xinjiang from 1864 to 1877, during the Dungan Revolt against the Qing dynasty.[5][6] It was an Islamic monarchy ruled by Yakub Beg, a Kokandi who secured power in Kashgar (later made Yettishar's capital[7]) through a series of military and political manoeuvres.[4] Yettishar's eponymous seven cities were Kashgar, Khotan, Yarkand, Yengisar, Aksu, Kucha, and Korla.[8]

In 1873, the Ottoman Empire recognised Yettishar as a vassal state and Yakub Beg as its emir.[9]: 152–153 

On 18 December 1877, the Qing army entered Kashgar and brought the state to an end.[6]

Background

By the 1860s, Xinjiang had been under Qing rule for a century. The area had been conquered in 1759 from the Dzungar Khanate[10] whose core population, the Oirats, subsequently became the targets of genocide. However, Xinjiang consisted mostly of semi-arid or desert lands, which were not attractive to potential Han settlers aside from a few traders. Consequently, Turkic peoples such as the Uyghurs settled in the area instead.

The Uyghurs were not known by their present name until the early 20th century. The Uzbeks that dwelled close to present-day Xinjiang were collectively called "Andijanis" or "Kokandis", while the Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin were known as "Turki", likely due to their Turkic language. There were also Uyghur immigrants residing in the Ili area who were called "Taranchi". The modern term "Uyghur" was assigned to the Turki by the then newly created Soviet Union in 1921 at a conference in Tashkent. As a result, sources from the period of the Dungan Revolt make no mentions of Uyghurs. The conflict was mainly an ethnic and religious war fought by Muslims (particularly Hui) in China's Xinjiang, Shaanxi, Ningxia and Gansu provinces, from 1862 to 1877.

Thousands of Muslim refugees from Shaanxi fled to Gansu. Some of them formed significant battalions in eastern Gansu, intending to reconquer their lands in Shaanxi. While the Hui rebels were preparing to attack Gansu and Shaanxi, Yakub Beg, an ethnic Uzbek or Tajik commander from the Kokand Khanate, fled from the Khanate in 1865 after losing Tashkent to the Russians, settled in Kashgar, and soon managed to take complete control of the oasis towns surrounding the Tarim Basin in southern Xinjiang.

Yakub Beg

Yakub Beg

Yakub Beg was born in the town of Piskent, in the Khanate of Kokand (present-day Uzbekistan).[4] During the Dungan Revolt, he conquered the Tarim Basin[11] and enthroned himself as the ruler of Yettishar when the Chinese were expelled from the region in 1864. During his short-lived reign, Yakub Beg entered into relations with the British and Russian Empires, and signed respective treaties with each. However, he failed to receive meaningful assistance from the two great powers when he was in need of their support against the Qing.[12]

Yakub Beg was given the title of "Athalik Ghazi" or "Champion Father of the Faithful" by the Emir of Bukhara in 1866. The Ottoman Sultan presented him with the title of Emir.[13]: 118, 220 

Yakub Beg's rule was unpopular among the native population of Yettishar. One of his Kashgari subjects, a warrior and the son of a chieftain, described his rule with the following: "During Chinese rule there was everything; now there is nothing." A substantial decrease in trade also ensued during his years in power.[14] Yakub Beg was disliked by his Turkic subjects, who were with heavy taxes and a harsh interpretation of Sharia.[15][16]

South Korean historian Hodong Kim argues that Yakub Beg's disastrous and inexact commands failed the locals and they in turn welcomed the return of Chinese troops.[9]: 172  Qing general Zuo Zongtang wrote that: "The Andijanis are tyrannical to their people; government troops should comfort them with benevolence. The Andijanis are greedy in extorting from the people; government troops should rectify this by being generous."[17]

Downfall

Andijani troops loyal to Yakub Beg
Uyghur troops loyal to Yakub Beg, in Khotan

In the late 1870s, the Qing decided to reconquer Xinjiang with Zuo Zongtang, previously a general in the Xiang Army, as commander-in-chief. His subordinates were the Han General Liu Jintang and Manchu leader Jin Shun.[18]: 240  As General Zuo moved into Xinjiang to crush the Muslim rebels under Yakub Beg, he was joined by Dungan Khufiyya Sufi General Ma Anliang and his forces, which were composed entirely of Dungan Muslims.[19] In addition, General Dong Fuxiang had an army of both Han and Dungan people, and his army took the Kashgar and Khotan areas during the reconquest.[20][21] The Shaanxi Gedimu Dungan Generals Cui Wei and Hua Decai, who had defected back to the Qing, also joined General Zuo's attack on Yakub Beg's forces.[22]

General Zuo implemented a conciliatory policy toward the Muslim rebels, pardoning those who did not rebel and surrendered if they had joined Yakub Beg's forces only for religious reasons. Rebels received rewards for defecting and assisting the Qing against their former compatriots.[19] General Zuo informed General Zhang Yao that the Andijanis (i.e. Yakub Beg's forces) had mistreated the local populace, and he should therefore treat the locals "with benevolence" to win their favour.[18]: 241]  Zuo wrote that the main targets were only the "die-hard partisans" and their leaders, Yakub Beg and Bai Yanhu.[18]: 241  A Russian wrote that soldiers under General Liu "acted very judiciously with regard to the prisoners whom he took ... His treatment of these men was calculated to have a good influence in favour of the Chinese."[18]: 241  In contrast to General Zuo, the Manchu commander Dorongga viewed all Muslims as the enemy and sought to indiscriminately massacre them.[19]

General Liu's army had modern German artillery, which Jin's forces lacked; Jin's advance was consequently not as rapid as Liu's. After Liu bombarded Kumuti, rebel casualties numbered 6,000 dead while Bai Yanhu was forced to flee. Thereafter Qing forces entered Ürümqi unopposed. Zuo wrote that Yakub Beg's soldiers had modern Western weapons but were cowardly: "The Andijani chieftain Yakub Beg has fairly good firearms. He has foreign rifles and foreign guns, including cannon using explosive shells [Kai Hua Pao]; but his are not as good nor as effective as those in the possession of our government forces. His men are not good marksmen, and when repulsed they simply ran away."[18]: 241 

In December 1877, all of Kashgar was reconquered.[6] Muhammad Ayub and his Dungan detachments took refuge in Russian possessions. Qing rule was restored over all of Xinjiang, except for the Ili region, which was returned by Russia to China under the 1881 Treaty of Saint Petersburg.[23]

Death of Yakub Beg

The manner of Yakub Beg's death is unclear. The Times of London and the Russian Turkestan Gazette both reported that he had died after a short illness.[9]: 167–169  The contemporaneous historian Musa Sayrami (1836–1917) states that he was poisoned on 30 May 1877 in Korla by the former hakim (local city ruler) of Yarkand, Niyaz Hakim Beg, after the latter conspired with Qing forces in Dzungaria.[9]: 167–169  However, Niyaz Beg himself, in a letter to the Qing authorities, denied his involvement in the death of Yakub Beg, and claimed that the Yettishar ruler committed suicide.[9]: 167–169  Some say that he was killed in battle with the Chinese.[24] According to South Korean historian Hodong Kim, most scholars agree that natural death (of a stroke) is the most plausible explanation.[9]: 167–169 

Notes

  1. ↑ Also spelled Yettishahr (from Uyghur)[2] or Yättä Shähär (from Chagatai).[3]

References

  1. ↑ Sayrimi, Musa (2023). The Tarikh-i Hamidi. Columbia University Press. p. 111.
  2. ↑ Klimeš, Ondřej (27 January 2015). Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949. Brill Publishers. p. 28. ISBN 978-90-04-28809-6. ... the region's name in original sources—Yette Sheher or Yettishahr (from Turkic and Persian, respectively, and meaning "Seven Cities" or "Heptapolis") ...
  3. ↑ Bellér-Hann, Ildikó (2007). Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia. Ashgate Publishing. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7546-7041-4.
  4. 1 2 3 "Yakub Beg: Tajik adventurer". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  5. ↑ Alexandre Andreyev (2003). Soviet Russia and Tibet: The Debacle of Secret Diplomacy, 1918-1930s. Brill Publishers. p. 16. ISBN 9004129529 – via Google Books.
  6. 1 2 3 G. J. Alder (1963). British India's Northern Frontier 1865–95. Longmans Green. p. 67 – via Internet Archive.
  7. ↑ Samah Ibrahim (29 January 2019). "China's Uighur Strategy and South Asian Risk". Future Directions International. Retrieved 30 April 2020. The creation of the Islamic State of Yettishar (1865–1878), with its capital at Kashgar, which is in present-day Xinjiang, came about as the result of a series of uprisings in Xinjiang.
  8. ↑ Svat Soucek, A History of Inner Asia (Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 265.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kim, Hodong (2004). Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804767231.
  10. ↑ Peter Perdue, China marches west: the Qing conquest of Central Eurasia. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 2005.
  11. ↑ James A. Millward (2007). Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang. Columbia University Press. pp. 117–. ISBN 978-0-231-13924-3.
  12. ↑ Herbert Allen Giles (1898). A Chinese biographical dictionary, Volume 2. London: B. Quaritch. p. 894. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
  13. ↑ Boulger, Demetrius Charles (1878). The Life of Yakoob Beg, Athalik Ghazi and Badaulet, Ameer of Kashgar. London: W. H. Allen.
  14. ↑ Demetrius Charles de Kavanagh Boulger (1878). The life of Yakoob Beg: Athalik ghazi, and Badaulet; Ameer of Kashgar. London: W. H. Allen. p. 152. Retrieved 18 January 2012. . As one of them expressed it, in pathetic language, "During the Chinese rule there was everything; there is nothing now." The speaker of that sentence was no merchant, who might have been expected to be depressed by the falling-off in trade, but a warrior and a chieftain's son and heir. If to him the military system of Yakoob Beg seemed unsatisfactory and irksome, what must it have appeared to those more peaceful subjects to whom merchandise and barter were as the breath of their nostrils?
  15. ↑ Wolfram Eberhard (1966). A history of China. Plain Label Books. p. 449. ISBN 1-60303-420-X. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
  16. ↑ Linda Benson; Ingvar Svanberg (1998). China's last Nomads: the history and culture of China's Kazaks. M.E. Sharpe. p. 19. ISBN 1-56324-782-8. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
  17. ↑ John King Fairbank (1978). The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800–1911, pt. 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 221–. ISBN 978-0-521-22029-3.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 Fairbank, John King; Liu, Kwang-Ching; Twitchett, Denis Crispin, eds. (1980). Late Ch'ing, 1800–1911. Volume 11, Part 2 of The Cambridge History of China Series (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22029-7. Retrieved 18 January 2012.
  19. 1 2 3 Lanny B. Fields (1978). Tso Tsung-tʼang and the Muslims: statecraft in northwest China, 1868–1880. Limestone Press. p. 81. ISBN 0-919642-85-3.
  20. ↑ DeWitt C. Ellinwood (1981). Ethnicity and the military in Asia. Transaction Publishers. p. 72. ISBN 0-87855-387-8. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  21. ↑ Ho-dong Kim (2004). Holy war in China: the Muslim rebellion and state in Chinese Central Asia, 1864-1877. Stanford University Press. p. 176. ISBN 0-8047-4884-5. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  22. ↑ Garnaut, Anthony (2008). "From Yunnan to Xinjiang:Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals" (PDF). Études orientales. Pacific and Asian History, Australian National University (25). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
  23. ↑ Historical Atlas of the 19th Century World, 1783–1914. Barnes & Noble Books. 1998. p. 519. ISBN 978-0-7607-3203-8.
  24. ↑ "Central and North Asia, 1800–1900 A.D." metmuseum.org. 2006. Archived from the original on 14 December 2006. Retrieved 14 December 2006.
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