Native Hawaiians
Kānaka Maoli, Hawaiʻi Maoli
Flag of Hawaii
Total population
527,077 (2010 census)[1]
156,456 (Native Hawaiian alone)[2]
Regions with significant populations
United States527,077
Canada3,300[3]
New Zealand429[4]
Languages
Religion
Related ethnic groups
Pacific Islander Americans, Tahitians, other Polynesians

Native Hawaiians (also known as Indigenous Hawaiians, Kānaka Maoli, Aboriginal Hawaiians, or simply Hawaiians; Hawaiian: kānaka, kānaka ʻōiwi, kānaka maoli, and Hawaiʻi maoli) are the indigenous Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands.

Hawaii was settled at least 800 years ago with the voyage of Polynesians from the Society Islands. The settlers gradually became detached from their original homeland and developed a distinct Hawaiian culture and identity in their new isolated home. That included the creation of new religious and cultural structures, mostly in response to the new living environment and the need for a structured belief system through which to pass on knowledge. Hence, the Hawaiian religion focuses on ways to live and relate to the land and instills a sense of communal living as well as a specialized spatial awareness.

The Hawaiian Kingdom was formed in 1795, when Kamehameha the Great, of the independent island of Hawaiʻi, conquered the independent islands of Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi, and Lānaʻi and unified them. In 1810, the whole Hawaiian archipelago became unified when Kauaʻi and Niʻihau joined the Kingdom. The Kingdom saw an influx of immigrants from the United States and Asia. The Kingdom became a Republic following its overthrow in 1893, and was annexed by the United States in 1898. An ongoing Hawaiian sovereignty movement exists seeking autonomy or independence for the state of Hawaii.

In the 2010 U.S. census, People with Native Hawaiian ancestry reported as residents in all 50 of the U.S. States, as well as Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico.[1] Within the U.S. in 2010 540,013 residents reported Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander alone in 2010, of which 135,422 lived in the State of Hawaii.[1] In the United States overall, 1.2 million people identified as Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, either alone or in combination with one or more other races.[1] The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander population was one of the fastest-growing race groups between 2000 and 2010 in the United States.[1]

History

King Kamehameha II

The history of Native Hawaiians, like the history of Hawaii, is commonly classified into four major periods:

Origins

One theory is that the first Polynesians arrived in Hawaii in the 3rd century from the Marquesas by travelling in groups of waka, and were followed by Tahitians in AD 1300, who then conquered the original inhabitants. Another is that a single, extended period of settlement populated the islands.[5] Evidence for a Tahitian conquest of the islands include the legends of Hawaiʻiloa and the navigator-priest Paʻao, who is said to have made a voyage between Hawaii and the island of "Kahiki" (Tahiti) and introduced many customs. Early historians, such as Abraham Fornander and Martha Beckwith, subscribed to this Tahitian invasion theory, but later historians, such as Patrick Kirch, do not mention it. King Kalākaua claimed that Paʻao was from Samoa.

Some writers claim that other settlers in Hawaiʻi were forced into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about the Menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians, but similar stories exist throughout Polynesia.[6]

Demographics

Hawaiians performing a Hula

At the time of Captain Cook's arrival in 1778, the population is estimated to have been between 250,000 and 800,000. This is the peak population of singularly Native Hawaiian people on the islands, with the 293,000 of today being made of both dual lineage Native Hawaiian and mixed lineage/ multi-racial Native Hawaiians. This was also the highest number of any Native Hawaiians living on the island until 2014, a period of almost 226 years. This long spread was marked by a die-off of 1-in-17 Native Hawaiians, to begin with, which would gradually increase to almost 8–10 Hawaiians having died from the first contact to the lowest demographic total in 1950. Over the span of the first century after the first contact, the native Hawaiians were nearly wiped out by diseases introduced to the islands. Native Hawaiians had no resistance to influenza, smallpox, measles, or whooping cough, among others. These diseases were similarly catastrophic to indigenous populations in the continental United States, and show a larger trend of violence and disease wiping out native people. The 1900 U.S. census identified 37,656 residents of full or partial Native Hawaiian ancestry.

Some Hawaiians left the islands during the period of the Hawaiian Kingdom like Harry Maitey, who became the first Hawaiian in Prussia. Over the span of the first century after the first contact, Native Hawaiians were nearly wiped out by diseases introduced to the islands. The 2000 U.S. census identified 283,430 residents of Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry, showing a dramatic growth trend since annexation by the U.S. in 1898. This rapid increase in population has also occurred outside of the island, with many of the populations in California and Washington experiencing dramatic increases in total population. This has been part of the larger Hawaiian cultural revival and reflects an important resurgence in the presence of Native Hawaiians in the fabric of modern island life.

Culture and arts

Hawaiian man with his two children, circa 1890

Several cultural preservation societies and organizations have been established over the course of the 20th century. The largest of those institutions is the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, established in 1889 and designated as the Hawaiʻi State Museum of Natural and Cultural History. The Bishop Museum houses the largest collection of native Hawaiian artifacts, documents, and other information available for educational use. Most objects are held for preservation alone. The museum has links with major colleges and universities throughout the world to facilitate research.

With the support of the Bishop Museum, the Polynesian Voyaging Society's double-hulled canoe, Hōkūleʻa, has contributed to rediscovery of native Hawaiian culture, especially in the revival of celestial navigation, by which ancient Polynesians originally settled Hawaiʻi.[7]

Religion and society

A depiction of a royal heiau (Hawaiian temple) at Kealakekua Bay, c. 1816

The Native Hawaiians initially began with a culture that was similar to their Polynesian roots, but with time and isolation began to develop their own religion and cultural practices. This new worship centered on the ideas of land (aina) and family (ohana) with land being held as a sacred part of life and family going beyond blood. These concepts are very different from Western views of familial structure and ownership.[8] Much of this changed during the imperialist allotment system, and familial relations were also changed by US settler policies. The Hawaiian religion is polytheistic but mostly focuses on two gods. These are Wākea and Papahānaumoku, the mother and father of the Hawaiian islands, whose stillborn child formed the deep roots of Hawaii, and whose second child, Hāloa, is the god from which all Hawaiians originate.[8]

Hawaiian culture is deeply caste-oriented, with definitive roles for people based on their pre-ascribed social standing. This is also reflected in their land system, with moku, tracts of land given to people of high standing and is kept within the family, being split into smaller ahupua'a, which extend from the sea to the mountains, ensuring that each tract of land includes all necessary resources for survival, including hardwoods and food sources.[9] The ahupua'a is managed by managers, who are charged by the chief to collect tributes from each tract. Specialized splits of the ahupua'a are based on the level of tribute, with the major split being 'Ili. 'Ili give a small tribute to the chief of the ahupua'a and another to the chief of the island. This is a form of tax, as well as a condition of the caste oriented land system. This is often compared to the European system of feudalism,[9] which is incorrect, as native Hawaiian peasants were never bound to the land as in the European system and were in fact free to move between ahupua’a as they saw fit.[10]

Native Hawaiians refer to themselves as kama'aina, a word meaning "people of the land", not just because of the connection to the land and their stewardship of it, but as part of the spiritual belief system that holds Native Hawaiian origin to the island itself.[11] This is reinforced by the taro plant, a crop that is said to be the manifestation of Hāloa, the stillborn son of Papa and Wakea. The taro plant comes to represent the deep root network that tethers Hawaiians to the island, as well as symbolizing the branching networks of the currently living Hawaiian people.[11]

Dance

One of the most commonly known arts of Hawaii is hula dancing. Traditionally, hula was a religious ritualistic dance that was more about honoring the gods and goddesses than about entertainment.[12] In the 21st century, many people recognize the hula dance in two different categories, which are Hula Kahiko and Hula ʻAuana.

Hula Kahiko, which is an "old" style of the hula dancing that is an interpretive dance, famous for its grace and romantic feel, that expresses stories and feeling from almost any phase of life and culture of Hawaiians. While dancing, they also use percussion instruments and traditional chanting. Hawaiians make their own traditional instruments to use while the dancers are dancing. These include the pahu hula, kilu or puniu, ipu, hano or ʻphe hano ihu, ka, pu, oeoe, pahupahu kaʻekeʻeke, hokio, and wi. Dancers employ implements to create sounds. Some of the traditional hula implements are ʻuliʻuli, puʻili, ʻiliʻili, papahehi, and kalaʻau.[13]

Hula ʻAuana is a hula that was changed by Western influences and performed with musical instruments that do not originate from the Hawaiian Islands. It was popularized and influenced by the influx of tourists to the Hawaiian Islands. The stories are told primarily with the movements of the body and hands, music, and ukuleles and guitars to accompany the dancers. The entire performance makes it more entertaining for those who are new to the culture.

Holidays

The Hawaiian people have various traditions and holidays they celebrate annually. One of the most important holidays is Prince Kuhio Day. Celebrated every year since 1949 on his birthday (March 26), Prince Kuhio Day honors Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole, a Congressman who succeeded in helping Native Hawaiian families become public landowners. It is celebrated with canoe races and luaus across the islands of Hawaii.[14] The most popular and well-known form of celebration in Hawaii are luaus. A luau is a traditional Hawaiian banquet, commonly featuring food such as poi, poke, lomi-lomi salmon, kalua pig, haupia, and classic Hawaiian entertainment like ukulele music and hula.[15] Every June 11 Native Hawaiians celebrate King Kamehameha day. Kamehameha was the king who unified Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and Hawaiʻi under one flag and established the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. He was also known as a fearless warrior, wise diplomat, and the most respected leader in the history of the Hawaiian monarchy. The holiday is celebrated with parades and lei draping ceremonies, where Native Hawaiians bring lei to the multiple King Kamehameha statues located across the islands and drape them from his cast bronze arms and neck to honor his contributions to the people of Hawaiʻi.[16]

Hawaiian cultural revival

Native Hawaiian culture has seen a revival in recent years as an outgrowth of decisions made at the 1978 Hawaiʻi State Constitutional Convention, held 200 years after the arrival of Captain Cook. At the convention, the Hawaiʻi state government committed itself to a progressive study and preservation of native Hawaiian culture, history, and language.

A comprehensive Hawaiian culture curriculum was introduced into the State of Hawaiʻi's public elementary schools teaching: ancient Hawaiian art, lifestyle, geography, hula, and Hawaiian language vocabulary. Intermediate and high schools were mandated to impose two sets of Hawaiian history curricula on every candidate for graduation.

The struggle to preserve Native Hawaiian culture is apparent in the schooling system that centers indigenous knowledge and language, as well as activism to preserve traditional landholdings. Much of the Hawaiian culture has been commodified, with hula dancers and symbols being mass-produced for non-Hawaiian consumption, which some scholars like Haunani-Kay Trask have considered prostitution of Hawaiian traditions.[17] This also includes things like the use of the word "Aloha", and the assimilation of Hawaiian culture into non-native lifestyles. For many Native Hawaiians, this is a difficult situation as the financial incentive offers a chance to escape joblessness, poverty, and complete erasure, while also allowing the dilution of cultural practice.

Statutes and charter amendments were passed acknowledging a policy of preference for Hawaiian place and street names. For example, with the closure of Barbers Point Naval Air Station in the 1990s, the region formerly occupied by the base was renamed Kalaeloa.

Activism

While Native Hawaiian protest has a long history, beginning just after the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, many of the most notable struggles and protest movements by Native Hawaiians were conducted during or after the Hawaiian cultural revival. These include the Kalama Valley protests, the Waiāhole-Waikāne struggle, the Kahoolawe protests, and the Thirty Meter Telescope protests.[18]

Hawaiian language

Hawaiian Traditional Language

The Hawaiian language (or ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi) was once the primary language of the native Hawaiian people; today, native Hawaiians predominantly speak the English language. A major factor for this change was an 1896 law that required that English "be the only medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools". This law prevented the Hawaiian language from being taught as a second language. In spite of this, some Native Hawaiians (as well as non-Native Hawaiians) have learned ʻŌlelo as a second language.[19] As with others local to Hawaii, Native Hawaiians often speak Hawaiian Creole English (referred to in Hawaiʻi as Pidgin), a creole which developed during Hawaiʻi's plantation era in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with the influence of the various ethnic groups living in Hawaii during that time.[20]

Nowadays, ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi is the official language of the State of Hawaii, alongside English. The Hawaiian language has been promoted for revival most recently by a state program of cultural preservation enacted in 1978. Programs included the opening of Hawaiian language immersion schools, and the establishment of a Hawaiian language department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. As a result, Hawaiian language learning has climbed among all races in Hawaiʻi.[21]

In 2006, the University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo established a masters program in the Hawaiian Language.[22] In fall 2006, they established a doctoral (Ph.D) program in the Hawaiian Language. In addition to being the first doctoral program for the study of Hawaiian, it is the first doctoral program established for the study of any native language in the United States of America.[23]

Hawaiian is still spoken as the primary language by the residents on the private island of Niʻihau.[24]

Hawai'i Sign Language

Alongside 'Ōlelo Hawai'i, some Maoli (Native Hawaiians) spoke Hawai'i Sign Language (or HSL). Little is known about the language by Western academics and efforts are being made to preserve and revitalize the language.[25]

Education

Hawaiian children are publicly educated under the same terms as any other children in the United States. In Hawaii, children are publicly educated by the Hawaiʻi State Department of Education. Under the administration of Governor Benjamin J. Cayetano from 1994 to 2002, the state's educational system established Hawaiian language immersion schools. In these schools, all subject courses are taught in the Hawaiian language and use native Hawaiian subject matter in curricula. These schools were created in the spirit of cultural preservation and are not exclusive to native Hawaiian children.[19]

Native Hawaiians are eligible for an education from the Kamehameha Schools, established through the last will and testament of Bernice Pauahi Bishop of the Kamehameha Dynasty. The largest and wealthiest private school in the United States, Kamehameha Schools was intended to benefit orphans and the needy, with preference given to native Hawaiians. The Kamehameha Schools educates thousands of children of entire and part native Hawaiian ancestry at its campuses during the regular school year, and also has summer and off-campus programs that are not restricted by ancestry. Kamehameha Schools' practice of accepting primarily gifted students, in lieu of intellectually challenged children, has been a controversial topic amongst the native Hawaiian community. Many families feel that the gifted students could excel at any learning institution, public or private, and that the Hawaiian community may be better served by educating children from high-risk, high-crime districts so that a greater proportion of disadvantaged youths may grow up to be responsible community contributors.[26]

As with other children in Hawaiʻi, some native Hawaiians are educated by other prominent private academies in the Aloha State. They include: Punahou School, Saint Louis School, Mid-Pacific Institute, and ʻIolani School.

Office of Hawaiian Affairs

Another important outgrowth of the 1978 Hawaiʻi State Constitutional Convention was the establishment of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, more popularly known as OHA. Delegates that included future Hawaiʻi political stars Benjamin J. Cayetano, John D. Waihee III, and Jeremy Harris created measures intended to address injustices toward native Hawaiians since the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi in 1893. OHA was established as a trust, administered with a mandate to better the conditions of both native Hawaiians and the Hawaiian community in general. OHA was given control over certain public lands, and continues to expand its land-holdings to this day (most recently with Waimea Valley, previously Waimea Falls Park).[27]

Besides purchases since its inception, the lands initially given to OHA were originally crown lands of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi used to pay the expenses of the monarchy (later held by the Provisional Government following the fall of the monarchy in 1893). Upon the declaration of the Republic of Hawaiʻi, they were officially designated as public lands. They were ceded to federal control with the establishment of the Territory of Hawaiʻi in 1898, and finally returned to the State of Hawaiʻi as public lands in 1959.

OHA is a semi-autonomous government body administered by a nine-member board of trustees, elected by the people of the State of Hawaiʻi through popular suffrage. Originally, trustees and the people eligible to vote for trustees were restricted to native Hawaiians. Rice v. Cayetano—suing the state to allow non-Hawaiians to sit on the board of trustees, and for non-Hawaiians to be allowed to vote in trustee elections—reached the United States Supreme Court, which ruled in favor of Rice on February 23, 2000, forcing OHA to open its elections to all residents of the State of Hawaiʻi, regardless of ethnicity.

Federal developments

United States annexation

In 1893, after the ascension of Queen Liliuokalani to the Hawaiian Throne in 1891, Sanford Dole created the "Committee of Safety" to overthrow the monarchy. This was in part due to the rejection of the 1887 Constitution by Queen Liliuokalani, which had severely limited the authority of the traditional Hawaiian monarch.[28] See Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom . This led to the diminishment of traditional governance and the installment of a US-backed, sugar baron government that was set on maximizing land-based profit on the island.[29] This is not the first major US government involvement, see Hawaiian rebellions (1887–1895), but marked one of the biggest shifts in policy. Many have speculated that the coup was due to Kalākaua's unwillingness to sign the amended Treaty of Reciprocity which would have hurt Hawaiian trade, and opened up part of the island for the Pearl Harbor based military installation.[30]

The United States coup would be bolstered by the usage of the US Marines and despite being challenged by Grover Cleveland, would eventually be supported by President McKinley in his "Manifest Destiny" plan, which was both harmful to indigenous peoples in the continental United States and the unceded Kingdom of Hawai'i. Overall, this coup left Native Hawaiians as the only major indigenous group with no "nation-to-nation" negotiation method and without any form of self determination.[31]

Native American Programs Act

In 1974, the Native American Programs Act was amended to include native Hawaiians. This paved the way for native Hawaiians to become eligible for some, but not all, federal assistance programs originally intended for Continental Native Americans. Today, Title 45 CFR Part 1336.62 defines a Native Hawaiian as "an individual any of whose ancestors were natives of the area which consists of the Hawaiian Islands prior to 1778".[32]

There is some controversy as to whether or not native Hawaiians should be considered in the same light as Native Americans.[33][34]

United States apology resolution

On November 23, 1993, U.S. President Bill Clinton signed United States Public Law 103–150, also known as the Apology Resolution, which had previously passed Congress. This resolution "apologizes to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii".[35]

Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009

In the early 2000s, the Congressional delegation of the State of Hawaiʻi introduced the Native Hawaiian Federal Recognition Bill, beginning the process of recognizing and forming a Native Hawaiian government entity to negotiate with state and federal governments. The significance of the bill is that it would establish, for the first time in the history of the islands, a new political and legal relationship between a Native Hawaiian entity and the federal government. This Native Hawaiian entity would be a newly created one without any historical precedent in the islands, or direct institutional continuity with previous political entities (unlike many Native American Indian groups, for example).

This bill came under scrutiny by the Bush administration's Department of Justice, as well as the United States Senate Judiciary Committee. The political context surrounding the Akaka Bill is both controversial and complex. Proponents, who consider the legislation an acknowledgement and partial correction of past injustices, include Hawaiʻi's Congressional delegation, as well as the former Republican Governor, Linda Lingle. Opponents include the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, (who question the constitutionality of creating race-based governments), libertarian activists, (who challenge the historical accuracy of any claims of injustice), and other Native Hawaiian sovereignty activists, (who feel the legislation would thwart their hopes for complete independence from the United States).

A Ward Research poll commissioned in 2003 by the Office of Hawaiian Affairs reported that "Eighty-six percent of the 303 Hawaiian residents polled by Ward Research said 'yes.' Only 7 percent said 'no,' with 6 percent unsure ... Of the 301 non-Hawaiians polled, almost eight in 10 (78 percent) supported federal recognition, 16 percent opposed it, with 6 percent unsure."[36] A Zogby International poll commissioned in 2009 by the Grassroot Institute of Hawaii indicated that a plurality (39%) of Hawaiʻi residents opposed the Native Hawaiian Reorganization Act of 2009, and that 76% indicated that they were unwilling to pay higher taxes to cover any loss in tax revenues that might be incurred by the act.[37]

Ka Huli Ao: Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law

In 2005, with the support of U.S. Senator Daniel Inouye, federal funding through the Native Hawaiian Education Act created the Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa's William S. Richardson School of Law. A few years later, the program became known as Ka Huli Ao: Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law. The inaugural director of Ka Huli Ao is Honolulu attorney Melody Kapilialoha MacKenzie, who was the chief editor of the Native Hawaiian Rights Handbook, which describes Native Hawaiian law.

Ka Huli Ao focuses on research, scholarship, and community outreach. Ka Huli Ao provides a monthly lunch-time discussion forum referred to as Maoli Thursday, which is free and open to the public. Ka Huli Ao maintains its own blog, as well as a Twitter account and a Facebook group. Ka Huli Ao also provides law students with summer fellowships. Law school graduates are eligible to apply for post-J.D. fellowships that last for one year.

Department of Interior Self-Governance Proposal

In 2016, the Department of Interior (DOI), under the direction of Secretary Jewell and President Obama, started the process of recognizing the Hawaiians’ right to self governance and the ability for nation-to-nation negotiation status and rights.[38] This created opposition from those who did not believe that Native Hawaiians should have to go through US structures to regain sovereignty as well as saw the US attempts as being an "incomplete path to Hawaiian independence and nationhood".[39] The final verdict of 2016 allowed for nation-to-nation relationships if Native Hawaiians created their own government and sought that relationship.[40] Ultimately the naming of delegates and recognition of the results for the new government was stopped by Justice Kennedy, using his earlier precedent in Rice v. Cayetano that "ancestry was a proxy for race" in ancestry based elections, but the voting itself was not stopped (see: United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians).

Violence Against Women Act

In December 2022, the Violence Against Women Act was amended, so as to include Native Hawaiian survivors of gender-based violence and Native Hawaiian organizations in Violence Against Women Act grant funding.[41]

Notable Native Hawaiians

In 1873, the first native Hawaiians were given permission from King Lunalilo (prior emigration of native Hawaiians was not allowed) to permanently emigrate to the United States (Salt Lake City, Utah) whose names were Kiha Kaʻawa, and Kahana Pukahi. Kiha was adopted by Mormon Missionary President George Nebeker immediately upon arrival making Kiha Kaʻawa (Nebeker) the first native Hawaiian to become a U.S. citizen in 1873.

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Population: 2010. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, 2012. https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-12.pdf
  2. ↑ Hixson, Linsday; Hepler, Bradford; Ouk Kim, Myoung (May 2012). 2010 Census Brief, The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Population: 2010 (PDF) (Report). United States Census Bureau. p. 15. C2010BR-12. Retrieved March 10, 2019. "There were 156,000 people who reported Native Hawaiian with no additional detailed NHPI group or race group and an additional 371,000 people who reported Native Hawaiian in combination with one or more other races and/or detailed NHPI groups. Thus, a total of 527,000 people reported Native Hawaiian alone or in any combination."
  3. ↑ {{url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Ethnic%20origin&TABID=1%7Ctitle=Census Profile, 2016 Census|publisher=Statistics Canada}}
  4. ↑ "2018 Census ethnic group summaries | Stats NZ".
  5. ↑ Kirch, Patrick Vinton; Green, Roger C (2001). Hawaiki, ancestral Polynesia : an essay in historical anthropology. Cambridge York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521783095. OCLC 57218655.
  6. ↑ Beckwith, Martha Warren (1976). Hawaiian mythology. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. ISBN 0-8248-0514-3. OCLC 5773353.
  7. ↑ Unattributed (July 25, 2007). "Hawaiian Cultural Heritage". Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (in American English and Hawaiian). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on September 16, 2008. Retrieved September 6, 2008. Discusses Hōkūleʻa's Navigating Change voyage which also raised consciousness of the interdependence of Hawaiians, their environment, and their culture.
  8. 1 2 "A Peek at the Native Hawaiian Culture, History, and Beliefs". US Travelia. May 11, 2015. Retrieved November 7, 2020.
  9. 1 2 "2. Hawai' i", Adventuring in Hawaii, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 37–134, December 31, 2017, doi:10.1515/9780824845179-003, ISBN 978-0-8248-4517-9, retrieved November 7, 2020
  10. ↑ Steele, Claire Hiwahiwa (2015). He Aliʻi Ka ʻĀina; He Kauwā ke Kanaka (The Land Is Chief; Man Is Its Servant): Traditional Hawaiian Resource Stewardship and the Transformation of the Konohiki. Honolulu, HI: M.A. Thesis, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. p. 21.
  11. 1 2 Trask, Haunani-Kay (July 1991). "Coalition-Building between Natives and Non-Natives". Stanford Law Review. 43 (6): 1197–1213. doi:10.2307/1229037. ISSN 0038-9765. JSTOR 1229037.
  12. ↑ "The History Of The Hula Dance". EverydayHealth.com. Retrieved September 1, 2019.
  13. ↑ "Instruments | Ka'Imi Na'auao O Hawai'i Nei Institute". Retrieved September 1, 2019.
  14. ↑ "Prince Jonah Kuhio Kalanianaole Day in the United States", timeanddate.com. Retrieved September 2, 2019.
  15. ↑ "Hawaiian Luau", to-hawaii.com. Retrieved September 2, 2019.
  16. ↑ "King Kamehameha Day", hawaii.com. Archived September 2, 2019, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved September 2, 2019.
  17. ↑ Trask, Haunani-Kay (1991). "Lovely Hula Lands: Corporate Tourism and the Prostitution of Hawaiian Culture". Border/Lines (23).
  18. ↑ "Mauna Kea Is The Latest In Long History Of Native Hawaiian Protests". Honolulu Civil Beat. August 30, 2019. Retrieved August 6, 2021.
  19. 1 2 Warner, Sam L. (1996). I ola ka 'olelo i na keiki: Ka 'apo 'ia 'ana o ka 'olelo Hawai'i e na keiki ma ke Kula Kaiapuni [That the Language Live through the Children: The Acquisition of the Hawaiian Language by the Children in the Immersion School.] (PhD). University of Hawaii. ProQuest 304242908.(Subscription required.)
  20. ↑ Collins, Kathy (January–February 2008). "Da Muddah Tongue". www.mauinokaoimag.com – Maui nō ka ʻoi Magazine. Wailuku, HI, USA. OCLC 226379163. Archived from the original on June 5, 2013. Retrieved October 18, 2012.
  21. ↑ Goo, Sara Kehaulani (June 22, 2019). "The Hawaiian Language Nearly Died. A Radio Show Sparked Its Revival". NPR. Retrieved August 6, 2021.
  22. ↑ Master's Degree in Hawaiian, npr.org
  23. ↑ Thompson, Rod (January 2, 2007). "UH offers first Ph.D. in a native language". archives.starbulletin.com. Retrieved August 6, 2021.
  24. ↑ Lyovin, Anatole V (1997). An Introduction to the Languages of the World. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 258. ISBN 0-19-508116-1.
  25. ↑ "Linguists say Hawaii Sign Language found to be distinct language". Washington Post. March 1, 2013. Archived from the original on November 11, 2019. Retrieved March 9, 2013.
  26. ↑ Roth, Randall W. (2002). "Economics of Non-Profit Accounting : The Kamehameha Schools Admissions Policy Controversy". International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law. 5 (1).
  27. ↑ Boyd, Manu (July 3, 2006). "OHA gains Waimea Valley title". Honolulu, HI, USA: Office of Hawaiian Affairs. Archived from the original on September 27, 2006. Retrieved May 19, 2012.
  28. ↑ "Americans overthrow Hawaiian monarchy". HISTORY. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  29. ↑ Russo, Carla Herreria (May 31, 2018). "Land, Loss And Love: The Toll Of Westernization On Native Hawaiians". HuffPost. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  30. ↑ "Untitled Document". www.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  31. ↑ "Manifest Destiny and the Pacific". gorhistory.com. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  32. ↑ "42 USC 2992c: Definitions". Office of the Law Revision Counsel United States Code. Retrieved November 3, 2021.
  33. ↑ "Native Hawaiian recognition is overdue". Indian Country Today. New York, NY, USA: Indian Country Today Media Network. August 13, 2001. ISSN 0744-2238. OCLC 61312545, 43291273. Archived from the original on October 25, 2006. Retrieved May 19, 2012. Native Hawaiians have rightfully demanded recognition of their aboriginal standing by the United States.
  34. ↑ "Are kanaka maoli indigenous to Hawai'i?". kenconklin.org. Archived from the original on May 1, 2015. Retrieved June 16, 2015.
  35. ↑ s:US Public Law 103-150
  36. ↑ Apoliona, Haunani (April 3, 2005). "Another Perspective: Scientific poll shows majority favors Hawaiian programs". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Honolulu, HI, USA: Black Press Group Ltd. ISSN 0439-5271. OCLC 9188300, 433678262, 232117605, 2268098. Retrieved June 2, 2012.
  37. ↑ Korn, Cheryl (November 24, 2009). "Results from Zogby International interactive poll commissioned by the Grassroot Institute of Hawaii" (PDF). grassrootinstitute.org. Zogby International. Honolulu, Hawaii: Grassroot Institute of Hawaii. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 23, 2010. Retrieved June 2, 2012.
  38. ↑ "Dept. of Interior finalizes rule to recognize native Hawaiian government". NBC News. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  39. ↑ Beat, Chad Blair Civil (September 23, 2016). "Feds Lay Out 'Pathway' To Native Hawaiian Self-Governance". HuffPost. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  40. ↑ "Native Hawaiians Divided on Federal Recognition | Voice of America - English". www.voanews.com. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  41. ↑ Lou, Alicia (December 31, 2022). "Native Hawaiian Domestic Violence Survivors Now Eligible For Federal Funding". Honolulu Civil Beat.

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