Doctors' trial, Nuremberg, 1946–1947

The following is a list of notable medical doctors in Nazi Germany. This list is primarily split up into those who performed Euthanasia through the Aktion T4 campaign, to those who primarily performed experiments on Holocaust victims. While a majority consists of members of the Nazi Party, others who could not become members contributed in notable ways. After the war, the German Medical Association blamed Nazi atrocities on a small group of 350 criminal doctors.[1][2][3] During the Doctors' trial, the defense argued that there was no international law to distinguish between legal and illegal human experimentation,[4] which led to the creation of the Nuremberg Code (1947). Some doctors attempted to change names to escape capture and trial, such as Werner Heyde[5] and Robert Ley,[6] Other doctors, such as Walter Schreiber, were covertly moved to the United States during "Operation Paperclip" in 1951.

  • Note: Some of those listed here were acquitted of the more serious charges, but were still found guilty for other crimes.

Background

When the Nazi government came to power, they purged Germany of its 6,000 to 7,000 Jewish doctors.[7] Non-Jewish physicians were early recruits to the Nazi Party, due both to social and economic circumstances and to widespread eugenic and Social Darwinist ideas in early-20th-century medicine.[8] By 1942, more than half of all German physicians had become Nazi Party members.[9][10][11] In comparison, only about 10% of the general population became Nazi Party members by 1945.[12] In addition, over 7% of German doctors became members of the Nazi SS, compared to less than 1% of the general population.[13] While most of these doctors were physicians, some held doctorates (PhDs) in biology, anthropology, or related fields. Doctors who were working for the state, and not for their patients, using a Mendelian type of logic chart, saw extermination of their patients as the correct solution to the problem of mental illness and the genetically defective.[14][15][16][17] "The participation in the ‘betrayal of Hippocrates’ had a broad basis within the German medical profession. Without the doctors' active help, the Holocaust could not have happened," wrote E Ernst in the International Journal of Epidemiology.[18] Killing and experimentation[19] became medical procedures as they were performed by licensed doctors. A doctor was present at all the mass killings for legal reasons.[20]

Euthanasia

Doctor Birth Death Position
Ernst Baumhard March 3, 1911 June 24, 1943 T4-Gutachter[21]
Oskar Begusch January 21, 1897 January 11, 1944 T4-Gutachter[22]
Friedrich Berner November 12, 1904 March 2, 1945 T4-Gassing doctor[23]
Hans Bertha April 14, 1901 January 3, 1964 T4-Gutachter[24]
Kurt Borm August 25, 1909 2001 T4-Gassing doctor[25]
Viktor Brack November 9, 1904 June 2, 1948 T4-Organizer[26]
Heinrich Bunke July 24, 1914 September 16, 2001 T4-Gassing doctor
Fritz Cropp October 25, 1887 April 6, 1984 T4-Organizer
Max de Crinis May 29, 1889 May 2, 1945 T4-Gutachter
Irmfried Eberl September 8, 1910 February 16, 1948 T4-Director
Klaus Endruweit December 6, 1913 September 3, 1994 T4-personnel
Valentin Faltlhauser November 28, 1876 January 8, 1961 T4-Gutachter
Emil Gelny March 28, 1890 March 28, 1961 T4-Gassing doctor[27][28]
Hans Bodo Gorgaß June 19, 1909 October 10, 1993 T4-Gassing doctor
Ernst-Robert Grawitz June 8, 1899 April 24, 1945 T4-personnel
Heinrich Gross November 14, 1915 December 15, 2005 T4-personnel
Ernst Hefter January 11, 1906 April 11, 1947 T4-Gutachter
Hans Heinze October 18, 1895 February 4, 1983 T4-Gutachter (Children)
Günther Hennecke August 11, 1912 November 21, 1943 T4-personnel
Werner Heyde (Fritz Sawade) April 25, 1902 February 13, 1964 T4-Obergutachter
Ernst Illing April 6, 1904 November 30, 1946 T4-Child euthanasia
Erwin Jekelius June 5, 1905 May 8, 1952 T4-Gutachter
Herbert Linden September 14, 1899 April 27, 1945 T4-Obergutachter
Rudolf Lonauer January 9, 1907 May 5, 1945 T4-Gutachter
Friedrich Mauz May 1, 1900 July 7, 1979 T4-Gutachter
Friedrich Mennecke October 6, 1904 January 28, 1947 T4-Gutachter
Paul (Hermann) Nitsche November 25, 1876 March 25, 1948 T4-Obergutachter
Friedrich Panse December 31, 1899 December 6, 1973 T4-Gutachter
Hermann Pfannmüller June 8, 1886 April 10, 1961 T4-Gutachter
Kurt Pohlisch March 28, 1893 February 6, 1955 T4-Gutachter
Georg Renno January 13, 1907 October 4, 1997 T4-Gutachter
Carl-Heinz Rodenberg November 19, 1904 Un­known T4-Gutachter
Curt Schmalenbach February 24, 1910 June 15, 1944 T4-Gutachter
Carl Schneider December 19, 1891 December 11, 1946 T4-Gutachter
Aquilin Ullrich March 14, 1914 May 30, 2001 T4-personnel
Werner Villinger October 9, 1887 August 8, 1961 T4-Gutachter
Erich Wasicky May 27, 1911 May 28, 1947 T4-Gassing doctor
Ernst Wentzler September 3, 1891 August 9, 1973 T4-Gutachter (Children)
Albert Widmann June 8, 1912 December 24, 1986 T4-personnel (Children)
Gerhard Wischer February 1, 1903 November 4, 1950 T4-Gutachter
Waldemar Wolter May 19, 1908 May 28, 1947 Euthanasia
Ewald Wortmann April 17, 1911 September 15, 1985 Euthanasia

Human experimentation

Doctor Birth Death Type(s) Sentence[lower-alpha 1] Reference(s)
Karl Babor August 23, 1918 January 18, 1964 Injections None (suicide)
Heinz Baumkötter February 7, 1912 April 21, 2001 Un­known 25 years
Hermann Becker-Freyseng July 18, 1910 August 27, 1961 High-altitude experiments 20 years [29]
Wilhelm Beiglböck October 10, 1905 November 22, 1963 Sea water experiments 15 years [30]
Otto Bickenbach March 11, 1901 November 26, 1971 Poison gas experiments Life [31]
Kurt Blome January 31, 1894 October 10, 1969 Multiple Acquitted[lower-alpha 2]
Karl Brandt January 8, 1904 June 2, 1948 Injections Executed
Carl Clauberg September 28, 1898 August 9, 1957 Sterilization experiments 25 years
Leonardo Conti August 24, 1900 October 6, 1945 Un­known None (suicide) [33]
Hans Delmotte December 15, 1917 January 31, 1945 Injections None (suicide)
Erwin (Oskar) Ding-Schuler September 19, 1912 August 11, 1945 Injections None (suicide)
Hans Eisele March 13, 1913 May 3, 1967 Surgical experiments Death
Friedrich Entress December 8, 1914 May 28, 1947 Injections Executed [34]
Hans Eppinger January 5, 1879 September 25, 1946 Sea water experiments None (suicide)
Fritz Fischer October 5, 1912 2003[lower-alpha 3] Surgical experiments Life
Karl (Franz) Gebhardt November 23, 1897 June 2, 1948 Injections & surgical ex. Executed
Karl (August) Genzken June 8, 1885 October 10, 1957 Injections Life
Kurt Gutzeit June 2, 1893 October 28, 1957 None directly[lower-alpha 4] None
Eugen Haagen June 17, 1898 August 3, 1972 Injections 20 years
Julius Hallervorden October 21, 1882 May 29, 1965 Post-mortem brain research None
Siegfried Handloser March 25, 1885 July 3, 1954 None directly[lower-alpha 5] None
Aribert (Ferdinand) Heim June 28, 1914 August 10, 1992 Injections Escaped
Fritz Hintermayer October 28, 1911 May 29, 1946 Injections Executed
Erich Hippke March 7, 1888 June 10, 1969 None directly[lower-alpha 6] None
Ernst Holzlöhner February 23, 1899 June 14, 1945 Freezing experiments None (suicide)
Waldemar Hoven February 10, 1903 June 2, 1948 Injections Executed
Emil Kaschub April 3, 1919 May 4, 1977 Injections None[lower-alpha 7] [35][36]
Hans Wilhelm König May 13, 1912 1991[lower-alpha 3] Injections Escaped
Eduard Krebsbach August 8, 1894 May 28, 1947 Injections Executed
Johann (Paul) Kremer December 26, 1883 January 8, 1965 Starvation experiments Death
Josef Mengele March 16, 1911 February 7, 1979 Multiple Escaped
Joachim Mrugowsky August 15, 1905 June 2, 1948 Injections Executed
Heinrich Mückter June 14, 1912 May 22, 1987 Un­known Escaped
Herta Oberheuser May 15, 1911 January 24, 1978 Sulfonamide experiments 20 years
Helmut Poppendick January 6, 1902 January 11, 1994 None directly[lower-alpha 8] 10 years
Sigmund Rascher February 12, 1909 April 26, 1945 Multiple None[lower-alpha 9]
Hans (Conrad Julius) Reiter February 26, 1881 November 25, 1969 None directly[lower-alpha 10] Minimal
Heinrich Rindfleisch March 3, 1916 Un­known Un­known None
Hans-Wolfgang Romberg May 15, 1911 September 6, 1981 High-altitude experiments Acquitted
Gerhard Rose November 30, 1896 January 13, 1992 Injections Life
Rolf Rosenthal January 22, 1911 May 3, 1947 Injections & surgical ex. Executed
Paul Rostock January 18, 1892 June 17, 1956 None directly[lower-alpha 11] Acquitted
Helmut Rühl January 14, 1918 Un­known Poison gas experiments Death (IA)
Siegfried Ruff February 19, 1907 April 22, 1989 High-altitude experiments Acquitted
Gerhard Schiedlausky January 14, 1906 May 3, 1947 Injections & surgical ex. Executed
Klaus Schilling July 5, 1871 May 28, 1946 Malaria experiments Executed
Oskar Schröder February 6, 1891 January 26, 1959 Sea water experiments Life
Horst Schumann May 1, 1906 May 5, 1983 X-ray sterilization ex. None
Heinrich Schütz April 12, 1906 November 12, 1986 Biochemical experiments 10 years
Walter Sonntag May 13, 1907 September 17, 1948 Injections Executed
Percival Treite September 10, 1911 April 8, 1947 Un­known None (suicide)
Alfred Trzebinski August 29, 1902 October 8, 1946 Injections Executed
Carl (Peter) Værnet April 28, 1893 November 25, 1965 Injections Escaped
Helmuth Vetter March 21, 1910 February 2, 1949 Injections Executed
Bruno (Nikolaus Maria) Weber May 21, 1915 September 23, 1956 Injections None
Georg August Weltz March 16, 1889 August 22, 1963 High-altitude experiments Acquitted
Wilhelm Witteler April 20, 1909 May 13, 1993 None directly[lower-alpha 12] Death
Eduard Wirths September 4, 1909 September 20, 1945 None directly[lower-alpha 13] None (suicide)

Others

Academics

Doctor Birth Death Short summary
Kurt Albrecht December 31, 1894 May 7, 1945 Albrecht was a professor at the University of Berlin, and Karl-Ferdinands-Universität in Prague.
Eugen Fischer July 5, 1874 July 9, 1967 Fischer developed the physiological specifications such as skull dimensions which were apparently used to determine racial origins and he also developed the so-called Fischer–Saller scale for hair colour. He and the members of his team experimented on Gypsies and African-Germans, drawing their blood and measuring their skulls (see Craniometry) to attempt to scientifically validate his theories.
Wilhelm Frick March 12, 1877 October 16, 1946 He achieved a doctorate of law and began working for the police in 1903. Later became a politician of the Nazi Party, joining September 1, 1925. He was a contributing creator and writer of the Nuremberg Laws . He was tried and executed after the war.[37]
Rudolf Hippius June 9, 1905 October 23, 1945 Hippius is best known for his work in "racial psychology" carried out under the auspices of the Nazi regime, and specifically his study of the "suitability" of people of mixed German and Slavonic descent.
Alfred Ploetz August 22, 1860 March 20, 1940 Ploetz was a eugenicist known for coining the term racial hygiene (Rassenhygiene), a form of eugenics, and for promoting the concept in Germany.
Robert Ritter May 14, 1901 April 15, 1951 Ritter was appointed head of the Racial Hygiene and Demographic Biology Research Unit of Nazi Germany's Criminal Police. He was the "architect of the experiments, the Roma and Sinti were subjected to." His pseudo-scientific "research" in classifying these populations of Germany aided the Nazi government in their systematic persecution toward a goal of "racial purity".
Ernst Rüdin April 19, 1874 October 22, 1952 While Rüdin has been credited as a pioneer of psychiatric inheritance studies, he also argued for, designed, justified and funded the mass sterilization and clinical killing of adults and children.[38]
Wilhelm Stuckart 16 November 1902 15 November 1953 He achieved a doctorate of law in 1930. He worked as a lawyer for the Nazi Party and helped to create and write the Nuremberg Laws.
Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer July 16, 1896 August 8, 1969 Verschuer was a Nazi-affiliated eugenicist with an interest in racial hygiene. He was an advocate of compulsory sterilization programs in the first half of the 20th century.[39][40]

Camp doctors

Doctor Birth Death Short summary
Martin Hellinger[41] July 17, 1904 August 13, 1988 Hellinger was a member of the Nazi party, who primarily dealt with removing dental gold from those killed at Ravensbrück. During his trial he claimed that he believed the deceased were legally executed. On February 3, 1947 he was initially sentenced to 15 years in prison, which was later reduced to time served on May 20, 1954. He re-established his dental practice afterwards until his death.
Wilhelm Jobst October 27, 1912 May 28, 1947 Jobst was a physician accused of giving injections to terminally ill prisoners in his capacity as camp doctor in Ebensee from 1944 to 1945. He was sentenced to death by hanging on May 13, 1946 and was executed in the following year.
Bruno Kitt[42] August 9, 1906 October 8, 1946 Bruno Kitt was a camp doctor at Auschwitz and Neuengamme after being drafted into the Waffen-SS in March 1942. He was found guilty of participating in the murder and mistreatment of prisoners at the Neuengamme concentration camp, and was sentenced to death by hanging on May 3, 1946.
Fritz Klein November 24, 1888 December 13, 1945 From December 15, 1943 to January 1945 Klein worked at Auschwitz, Birkenau, Neuengamme, and finally Bergen-Belsen as a camp doctor. During his trial, Anita Lasker testified that Klein took part in selections for the gas chamber.[43] Klein was found guilty and was executed by hanging on December 13, 1945.
Franz Lucas September 15, 1911 December 7, 1994 Physician
Hans Münch May 14, 1911 January 27, 2001 Physician
Ernst (Heinrich) Schmidt March 27, 1912 November 28, 2000 Physician
Heinz Thilo October 8, 1911 May 13, 1945 Physician
Adolf Winkelmann March 26, 1887 February 1, 1947 Physician

Miscellaneous

Doctor Birth Death Known for[lower-alpha 14]
Otto Ambros May 19, 1901 July 23, 1990 Slave labor
Hans Ehlich July 1, 1901 March 30, 1991 Physician
Willi Enke[44] March 6, 1895 December 24, 1974 Pneumoencephalography
Carl (Karl) Krauch April 7, 1887 February 3, 1968 Slave labor
Theodor (Gilbert) Morell July 22, 1886 May 26, 1948 Adolf Hitler's physician
Walter (Paul Emil) Schreiber March 21, 1893 September 5, 1970 Physician and witness
Erich Traub June 27, 1906 May 18, 1985 Lab chief - bioweapons
Gerhard Wagner August 18, 1888 March 25, 1939 Compulsory sterilization
Friedrich Wegener April 7, 1907 July 9, 1990 Autopsies on Jewish concentration camp inmates

Non Nazis

While the following people were never members of the Nazi Party, their names are included here as they are known to have contributed in a notable way.

Doctor Birth Death Short summary
Hans Asperger February 18, 1906 October 21, 1980 Asperger's alleged Nazi involvement has been hotly debated.
Alfred Erich Hoche August 1, 1865 May 16, 1943 While never a party member, Hoche is known for his writings about eugenics and euthanasia.
Yusuf (Bey Murad) Ibrahim May 27, 1877 February 3, 1953 Ibrahim was associated with Action T4 to an unknown extent. He could not become a member of the Nazi Party due to his half Arabic background
Adolf Pokorny July 25, 1895 Un­known Pokorny's entry into the NSDAP in 1939 failed because of Lilly Pokorná's (his ex-wife) Jewish origins.
Gustav Wilhelm Schübbe March 31, 1910 April 12, 1976 Schübbe was temporarily in charge of a medical institute in German occupied Kiev (Ukraine) where people (Jews, "Gypsies", schizophrenics, etc.) were killed. He was never a party member himself, and charges against him were later dropped.
Hubertus Strughold June 15, 1898 September 25, 1986 While Strughold never joined the Nazi Party, his association permanently tarnished his legacy.
Marianne Türk May 31, 1914 January 11, 2003 Türk was involved with Child euthanasia. During her interrogation at the Vienna People's Court on October 16, 1945, the doctor stated that she was neither interested in politics nor belonged to a political organization.

See also

Articles

Lists

Notes

  1. ↑ These are initial sentences, many of which were later commuted.
  2. ↑ American intervention possibly saved Blome from the gallows in exchange for information about biological warfare, nerve gas, and providing advice on to the American chemical and biological weapons programs.[32]
  3. 1 2 Exact date unknown
  4. ↑ Gutzeit was involved in the coordination of pseudo-medical infection tests with hepatitis.
  5. ↑ Handloser held the newly established position of Chief of Wehrmacht Medical Services in the Wehrmacht High Command (OKW). This made him primarily responsible for the entire medical service of the Wehrmacht and consequently also for all medical crimes that were committed within the framework of the Wehrmacht medical service, particularly against prisoners of war.
  6. ↑ Hippke was arrested, but later was released after it was found he was only the source behind the idea for deadly "freezing experiments" on humans.
  7. ↑ Kaschub died before charges could be brought up against him.
  8. ↑ The courts found that Poppendick was aware of almost all the experiments that had been carried out on prisoners in various concentration camps, but saw no criminal liability. He was ultimately sentenced to 10 years for being a member of the SS.
  9. ↑ Rascher never stood trial, he was executed under direct orders from Heinrich Himmler for deception
  10. ↑ Reiter was a "quality control" officer who helped design and implement a process where internees were inoculated with an experimental typhus vaccine. He later assisted the Allies with his knowledge of germ warfare.
  11. ↑ Rostock was charged with complicity in several series of human experiments on concentration camp prisoners due to his high position.
  12. ↑ Witteler was involved in the selection of prisoners who were deliberately infected during Claus Schilling 's malaria experiments.
  13. ↑ Wirths was involved in ordering medical experimentation, particularly in gynecological and typhus-related experimental tests.
  14. ↑ This only covers what the person did or allegedly did under the Nazi regime.

References

  1. ↑ Kolb, Stephan; Weindling, Paul; Roelcke, Volker; Seithe, Horst (2012). "Apologising for Nazi medicine: A constructive starting point". The Lancet. 380 (9843): 722–723. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61396-8. PMC 4365922. PMID 22928190.
  2. ↑ Strous, Rael D. (2006). "Nazi Euthanasia of the Mentally Ill at Hadamar". American Journal of Psychiatry. 163 (1): 27. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.27. PMID 16390885.
  3. ↑ Müller-Hill, Benno (April 28, 1988). Murderous science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192615558.
  4. ↑ "As Other Editors See it : The Nazi Doctors" Schenectady Gazette. November 27, 1946
  5. ↑ Schneider, Frank (2011). "Psychiatry under National Socialism: Remembrance and Responsibility". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 261: 111–118. doi:10.1007/s00406-011-0243-1. PMID 21959914.
  6. ↑ "Robert Ley is in hands of yankees" Lawrence Daily Journal World. May 17, 1945
  7. ↑ "Germany looks for way out of war". The Southeast Missourian. September 17, 1938.
  8. ↑ Haque, Omar S.; De Freitas, Julian; Viani, Ivana; Niederschulte, Bradley; Bursztajn, Harold J. (September 1, 2012). "Why did so many German doctors join the Nazi Party early?". International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. Forensic Psychiatry: Expertise, Treatment and Public Policy. 35 (5): 473–479. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2012.09.022. ISSN 0160-2527. PMID 23040706.
  9. ↑ Hayse, Michael R. (2003). Recasting West German Elites: Higher Civil Servants, Business Leaders, and Physicians in Hesse between Nazism and Democracy, 1945-1955. Oxford: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-57181-271-1.
  10. ↑ The Nazi Doctors and the Nuremberg Code : Human Rights in Human Experimentation. Oxford University Press. May 7, 1992. p. 19. ISBN 9780199772261.
  11. ↑ Leary, Warren E. (November 10, 1992). "Exhibition Examines Scientists' Complicity in Nazi-Era Atrocities". The New York Times.
  12. ↑ McNab, Chris (2011). Hitler's Masterplan: The Essential Facts and Figures for Hitler's Third Reich. London: Amber Books Ltd. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-1907446962.
  13. ↑ Colaianni, Alessandra (2012). "A long shadow: Nazi doctors, moral vulnerability and contemporary medical culture". Journal of Medical Ethics. 38 (7): 435–438. doi:10.1136/medethics-2011-100372. PMID 22556311.
  14. ↑ Strous, Rael D. (2007). "Psychiatry during the Nazi era: Ethical lessons for the modern professional". Annals of General Psychiatry. 6: 8. doi:10.1186/1744-859X-6-8. PMC 1828151. PMID 17326822.
  15. ↑ authors Akua F. Abu and Zhanrui Kuang (April 15, 2011). "Exhibit Depicts Nazi Science".
  16. ↑ "...carried out only by physicians." Book "Human Subjects Research after the Holocaust" authors Sheldon Rubenfeld, Susan Benedict. Year 2014. Page 10.
  17. ↑ Torrey, E. F.; Yolken, R. H. (2009). "Psychiatric Genocide: Nazi Attempts to Eradicate Schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 36 (1): 26–32. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbp097. PMC 2800142. PMID 19759092.
  18. ↑ Ernst, E. (2001). "Commentary: The Third Reich—German physicians between resistance and participation". International Journal of Epidemiology. 30 (1): 37–42. doi:10.1093/ije/30.1.37. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-002B-0D8B-C. PMID 11171848.
  19. ↑ "Nazi Sterilization Experiments" Author Genevieve Payzer. 2017
  20. ↑ "History Vs. Apologetics: The Holocaust, the Third Reich, and the Catholic Church" Author David Cymet. Page 262. Told by Dr Hans Wilhelm Münch in 1981.
  21. ↑ Roelcke, Volker; Lepicard, Etienne; Topp, Sascha (2014). Silence, Scapegoats, Self-reflection: The Shadow of Nazi Medical Crimes on Medicine and Bioethics. V&R unipress GmbH. p. 109. ISBN 9783847103653.
  22. ↑ Wolfgang Freidl (2001). Medizin und Nationalsozialismus in der Steiermark. StudienVerlag. ISBN 3-70651565-2.
  23. ↑ Expert list. Heidelberg documents. p. 228. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  24. ↑ "Vienna buries last remains of victims of Nazi medical mistreatment" National Post. May 9, 2012.
  25. ↑ Expert list. Heidelberg documents. pp. 228–229. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  26. ↑ Cesarani, David (2016). Final Solution: The Fate of the Jews, 1933–1945. St. Martin’s Press. p. 282. ISBN 978-1-25000-083-5.
  27. ↑ Gazdag G, Ungvari GS, Czech H (2017). "Mass killing under the guise of ECT: the darkest chapter in the history of biological psychiatry". Hist Psychiatry. 28 (4): 482–488. doi:10.1177/0957154X17724037. PMID 28829187. S2CID 9732068.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ↑ "Abusive Medical Practices on “Euthanasia” Victims in Austria during and after World War II" Author Herwig Czech. Page 112. DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-05702-6_9
  29. ↑ Maura Phillips Mackowski, Testing the Limits: Aviation Medicine and the Origins of Manned Space Flight, Texas A&M University Press, 2006, p. 64
  30. ↑ Alexander Mitscherlich / Fred Mielke: Medizin ohne Menschlichkeit – Dokumente des Nürnberger Ärzteprozesses, Lamberg und Schneider, Heidelberg 1949, ISBN 3-596-22003-3.
  31. ↑ Otto Bickenbach's Human Experiments with Chemical Warfare Agents at the Concentration Camp Natzweiler in the Context of the SS-Ahnenerbe and the Reichsforschungsrat
  32. ↑ Erhard Geissler, "Die Rolle deutscher Biowaffenexperten in der Zeit nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg," in Oehler-Klein & Roelcke,Vergangenheitspolitik in der universitaeren Medizin nach 1945 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2007), p. 101.
  33. ↑ "The Murder of Unproductive Persons"
  34. ↑ The Dachau Trials:Mauthausen-Gusen Cases
  35. ↑ Gazdag G, Ungvari GS, Czech H (2017). "Mass killing under the guise of ECT: the darkest chapter in the history of biological psychiatry". Hist Psychiatry. 28 (4): 482–488. doi:10.1177/0957154X17724037. PMID 28829187. S2CID 9732068.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ↑ "Abusive Medical Practices on “Euthanasia” Victims in Austria during and after World War II" Author Herwig Czech. Page 112. DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-05702-6_9
  37. ↑ "Deutsche Biographie: Frick, Wilhelm".
  38. ↑ Joseph, J.; Wetzel, N. A. (2013). "Ernst Rüdin: Hitler's Racial Hygiene Mastermind". Journal of the History of Biology. 46 (1): 1–30. doi:10.1007/s10739-012-9344-6. PMID 23180223. S2CID 207150510.
  39. ↑ Nicholas Wade, "IQ and Heredity: Suspicion of Fraud Beclouds Classic Experiment", Science November 26, 1976: 916–919.
  40. ↑ D. D. Dorfman, "The Cyril Burt Question: New Findings", Science September 29, 1978: Vol. 201 no. 4362 pp. 1177–1186
  41. ↑ "Nazi War Crimes Trials:Ravensbrück Trial"
  42. ↑ Nazi War Crimes Trials
  43. ↑ Law reports of trials of war criminals, selected and prepared by the United Nations War Crimes Commission. – Volume II, The Belsen Trial (PDF). London: United Nations War Crimes Commission. 1947. p. 21f.
  44. ↑ [The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution By Henry Friedlander pg 92]
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