| Proto-Niger–Congo | |
|---|---|
| (hypothetical) | |
| Reconstruction of | Niger–Congo languages |
| Region | Africa |
| Era | Early 8th millennium BC |
| Lower-order reconstructions | |
Proto-Niger–Congo is the hypothetical reconstructed proto-language of the proposed Niger–Congo language family.
Validity
Unlike Nilo-Saharan, the Niger–Congo language phylum is accepted by mainstream linguists and Africanists.[1] Atlantic–Congo (roughly, Niger–Congo but excluding the Mande, Kru, Siamou, Kordofanian, Dogon and Ijoid languages) is accepted by Glottolog 4.4.
Origin
Blench (2006,[2] 2016[3]) proposes that Proto-Niger-Congo originated about 11-10,000 years before present in the western part of the "Green Sahara" of Africa (roughly the Sahel and southern Sahara), and that its dispersal can be correlated with the spread of the bow and arrow by migrating hunter-gatherers.
Phonology
Tones
Larry Hyman (2016) reconstructs two contrastive level tones for Proto-Niger–Congo, which are:[4][5]
- *H (high tone)
- *L (low tone)
Syllabic structure
Proto-Niger–Congo is traditionally assumed to have had a disyllabic root structure similar to that of Proto-Bantu, namely (C)V-CVCV[6] (Williamson 2000,[7] etc.). However, Roger Blench (2016) proposes a trisyllabic (CVCVCV) syllabic structure for Proto-Niger–Congo roots,[6] while Konstantin Pozdniakov (2016) suggests that the main prototypical structure of Proto-Niger–Congo roots is *CVC, along with disyllabic, trisyllabic, and other variations.[8]
Morphology
Noun classes
Noun classes can be reconstructed for Proto-Niger–Congo. Noun class prefixes in Proto-Niger–Congo include:[1]
- noun class 1: prefix for human singular
- noun class 2: prefix for human plural
- noun class 6A: prefix for liquid and mass nouns ("uncountables")
Below are some Niger-Congo noun class markers (Good 2020:145,[9] from Schadeberg 1989:72[10]):
| Branch | 1 | 1 (semantic category) | 3 | 4 | 4 (semantic category) | 5 | 6 | 6 (semantic categories) | 6a | 6a (semantic category) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kordofanian | *gu- | humans | *gu- | *j- | ‘tree’ | *li- | *ŋu- | ‘egg’ | *ŋ- | liquids |
| Atlantic | *gu- | humans | *gʊ- | *Ci- | ‘trees’ | *de- | *ga- | ‘head, name’ | *ma- | liquids |
| Oti–Volta (Gur) | *-ʊ | humans | *-bʊ | *-Ci | ‘tree’ | *-ɖɪ | *-a | ‘egg, head’ | *-ma | liquids |
| Ghana–Togo (Kwa) | *o- | humans | *o- | *i- | ‘firewood’ | *li- | *a- | ‘egg, head, name’ | *N- | liquids |
| Benue–Congo | *u- | humans | *u- | *(t)i- | ‘tree’ | *li- | *a- | ‘egg, head, name’ | *ma- | liquids |
| Bantu (noun) | *mu- | humans | *mu- | *mi- | ‘tree’ | *i̧- | *ma- | ‘egg, name’ | *ma- | liquids |
| Bantu (pronoun) | *ju- | *gu- | *gi- | *di- | *ga- | *ga- |
Verbal extensions
Below are some Proto-Niger-Congo, Proto-Bantu, and Proto-Atlantic verbal extensions (Good 2020:146,[9] from Hyman 2007:157[11]):
| Type of suffix | Proto-Niger-Congo | Proto-Bantu | Proto-Atlantic |
|---|---|---|---|
| applicative | *-de | *-ɪd | *-ed |
| causative | *-ci, *-ti | *-ic-i | *-an |
| passive | *-o | *-ɪb-ʊ | *-V[+back] |
| reciprocal | *-na | *-an | *-ad |
| reversive | *-to | *-ʊd | *-ɪt |
For example, in Swahili:
- verb root: penda 'to love'
- reciprocal: pendana 'to love each other'
- applicative: pendea 'to love for'
- causative: pendeza 'to please'
Pronouns
Güldemann's (2018) Proto-Niger–Congo pronoun reconstructions, for the first and second person pronouns (singular and plural), are given below.[1]
| singular | plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | *mVfront | *TVclose |
| 2nd person | *mVback | *NVclose |
Babaev (2013) is a detailed survey of pronouns in Niger–Congo languages, along with detailed reconstructions.[12]
Numerals
Konstantin Pozdniakov (2018) has published a detailed reconstruction of Proto-Niger–Congo numerals, as well as comprehensive reconstructions for the lower-order branches of the Niger–Congo phylum. Pozdniakov (2018: 293)[13] and Güldemann (2018: 147) reconstruct the following numerals for Proto-Niger–Congo.[1]
| Numeral | Proto-Niger–Congo (Pozdniakov 2018) | Proto-Niger–Congo (Güldemann 2018) |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | *ku-(n)-di (> ni/-in), *do, *gbo/*kpo | |
| 2 | *ba-di | *Ri |
| 3 | *tat / *tath | *ta(C) |
| 4 | *na(h)i | *na(C) |
| 5 | *tan, *nu(n) | *nU |
| 6 | 5+1 | |
| 7 | 5+2 | |
| 8 | *na(i)nai (< 4 reduplicated) | |
| 9 | 5+4 | |
| 10 | *pu / *fu | |
| 20 | < ‘person’ |
The numerals 6-9 are formed by combining lower numerals, while ‘20’ is derived from ‘person’.
Lexicon
There is currently no comprehensive, systematic reconstruction for Proto-Niger–Congo lexical roots. Nevertheless, quasi-reconstructions (preliminary, tentative reconstructions, which are marked using the number sign #) have been attempted by Roger Blench, who is currently compiling a Niger–Congo etymological dictionary. Some examples from Blench (2016):[6]
| Proto-Niger–Congo | Gloss |
|---|---|
| *keɗeri | to split, cut, break |
| *suŋguri | to wash (transitive) |
| #tokori | chew |
| *siŋguri | rub, smear |
| *ɗumigbi | bury, dig, grave, plant |
| #tɪ́gbʊ́rɪ́ | head |
| #gbukuru | tortoise, turtle |
| #goŋgboro | chest |
| #kpagara | leg, foot |
| #ku(n)duŋo | knee |
| #-bugbulu | hole |
| #kVnV | one |
| *tunuru | five |
Hans Günther Mukarovsky's reconstruction of Proto-Western Nigritic (roughly equivalent to Proto-Atlantic–Congo[14]) was published in 2 volumes in 1976 and 1977.[15]
Plants
Blench (2009) lists various Niger–Congo quasi-reconstructions for plants with important economic uses (note that not all of them necessarily reconstruct to Proto-Niger–Congo). These roots are generally widespread areal forms (Wanderworts), with some of them also found in Afroasiatic and Nilo-Saharan languages.[16] A few forms are also added from some of Blench's other works (2006, 2012, 2016).
Other plant names with widespread areal distributions in West Africa:
- Milicia excelsa: odum, iroko (in Ghana and Nigeria)[2]
- Funtumia elastica (bush rubber tree): o-fruntum (in Ghana)[2]
- Sesamum indicum (sesame): #-sVwa (Benue-Congo)[2]
- Abelmoschus esculentus (okra): ɔ́kʊrʊ, ɪkɪabʊ, akɛnɛta (in southern Nigeria)[17]
Animals
Below are some quasi-reconstructions of Niger–Congo areal forms for animal names given by Blench (2007[19]), with some reconstructions also based on Blench (2006).[2]
| Niger–Congo form | Common name | Distribution |
|---|---|---|
| #jata | lion | Mande-Congo |
| #guni | lion | areal form |
| #-bungu | hyena | Volta-Congo |
| #-biti | hyena | Proto-Benue-Kwa |
| #murum | hyena | Central Nigeria |
| #gbali | elephant | Mande-Congo |
| #-nyi | elephant | Benue-Kwa ?; also means 'tusk' |
| #-solu | elephant | Volta-Congo |
| #-bu | dog | Proto-Niger-Congo |
| #kuru[2] | crocodile | Niger-Congo (Proto-Bantu has #-gandu)[2] |
| #budi[2] | goat | Niger-Congo (Afroasiatic and Nilo-Saharan have #k-r-)[2] |
| #-ga[2] | village weaver | Benue-Congo[2] |
See also
Bibliography
- Güldemann, Tom (2011). "Proto-Bantu and Proto-Niger-Congo: Macro-areal Typology and Linguistic Reconstruction". Geographical Typology and Linguistic Areas. Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. Vol. 2. p. 109. doi:10.1075/tufs.2.09gul. ISBN 978-90-272-0769-2. ISSN 1877-6248.
- Sim, Galina (2017). "Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction, Paris, LLACAN, September 1–3, 2016". Journal of Language Relationship. 14 (3–4): 207–210. doi:10.31826/jlr-2017-143-408. ISSN 2219-4029.
- Grollemund, Rebecca, Simon Branford, Jean-Marie Hombert & Mark Pagel. 2016. Genetic unity of the Niger-Congo family. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.
References
- 1 2 3 4 Güldemann, Tom (2018). "Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa". In Güldemann, Tom (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of Africa. The World of Linguistics series. Vol. 11. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 58–444. doi:10.1515/9783110421668-002. ISBN 978-3-11-042606-9. S2CID 133888593.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Blench, Roger (2006). Archaeology, language, and the African past. AltaMira Press. ISBN 9780759104655.
- ↑ Blench, Roger. 2016. Can we visit the graves of the first Niger-Congo speakers?. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.
- ↑ Hyman, Larry M. (2016). "On Reconstructing Tone in Proto-Niger-Congo". UC Berkeley Phonology Lab Annual Reports. 12. doi:10.5070/P7121040722. ISSN 2768-5047.
- ↑ Hyman, Larry. 2016. Can we visit the graves of the first Niger-Congo speakers?. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "On Reconstructing Tone in Proto-Niger-Congo", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.
- 1 2 3 Blench, Roger. 2016. Supposing we have been completely wrong about the shape of early Niger-Congo roots?. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.
- ↑ Williamson, Kay. 2000. Proto-Niger-Congo. In: H. Ekkehard Wolff, Orin D. Gensler (eds). Proceedings of the 2nd World Congress of African Linguistics, Leipzig 1997, pp.49-70. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe. ISBN 9783896451248.
- ↑ Pozdniakov, Konstantin. 2016. Proto-Niger-Congo root structures. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "On Reconstructing Tone in Proto-Niger-Congo", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.
- 1 2 Good, Jeff. 2020. Niger-Congo, with a special focus on Benue-Congo. In: Vossen, Rainer and Gerrit J. Dimmendaal (eds.). 2020. The Oxford Handbook of African Languages, pp. 139-160. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ↑ Schadeberg, Thilo C. (1989). ‘Kordofanian’, in J. Bendor-Samuel (ed.). The Niger-Congo Languages: A classification and description of Africa's largest language family, 66-80. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
- ↑ Hyman, L. M. (2007). ‘Niger-Congo verb extensions: overview and discussion’, in D. L. Payne and J. Pena (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference on African Linguistics. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla, 149-63.
- ↑ Babaev, Kirill Vladimirovich (2013). Нигеро-конголезский праязык: Личные местоимения (in Russian). Moscow: Языки славянской культуры (ЯСК). ISBN 978-5-9551-0642-7. OCLC 861922684.
- ↑ Pozdniakov, Konstantin (2018). The numeral system of Proto-Niger-Congo: A step-by-step reconstructio (pdf). Niger-Congo Comparative Studies. Berlin: Language Science Press. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1311704. ISBN 978-3-96110-098-9.
- ↑ Blench, Roger. Kordofanian and Niger-Congo: new and revised lexical evidence. Cambrdige: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation.
- ↑ Mukarovsky, Hans. 1976-1977. A study of Western Nigritic (2 vols). Wien: Institut für Ägyptologie und Afrikanistik, Universität Wien.
- ↑ Blench, Roger. 2009. New reconstructions of West African economic plants. In: Jörg Adelberger & Rudolf Leger (eds.): Language, History and Reconstructions. Frankfurter Afrikanistische Blätter 21 (2009) XX-XX. Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Köln.
- 1 2 3 Blench, Roger. 2016. Reconstructing African agrarian prehistory by combining different sources of evidence: methodological considerations and examples for west African economic plants. In: News from the Past; Progress in African Archaeobotany. Proceedings of the 7th International Workshop on African Archaeobotany, Vienna, 2-5th July, 2012. U. Thanheiser ed. 13-26. Groningen: Barkhuis.
- ↑ Blench, Roger M. (2012). "Vernacular names for African millets and other minor cereals and their significance for agricultural history". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 8 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1007/s12520-012-0104-5. ISSN 1866-9557. S2CID 128906570.
- ↑ Blench, Roger. 2007. Lexical avoidance taboos and the reconstruction of names for large animals in Niger-Congo, an African language phylum. In: Edmond Dounias, Elisabeth Motte-Florac and Margaret Dunham (eds). Le symbolisme des animaux - l’animal “clef de voûte” dans la tradition orale et les interactions homme-nature. 545-569 + unpaginated appendices. Paris: Editions IRD.