Background and early activities

Frezier Map of Hispaniola

Mella was born to Antonio Mella Álvarez (1794–1837) and Francisca Javier Castillo Álvarez (1790–1864), on 25 February 1816, in the capital city of Santo Domingo during the España Boba period. While both his parents were of Spanish decsent, Mella's paternal grandmother, Juana Álvarez Pereyra, who was a native from San Carlos, has origins in the Canary Islands. ^[1] His father was a merchant by profession. ^[2] On 6 March, at 11 days old, he was baptized in the Cathedral Church by Fr. Augustin Tavarez. He had two other siblings named Idelfonso (1818-1910) and Manuela Mella Castillo (1827-1894). His brother Ildefonso accompanied him in the activities of the Trinitarios, and was one of the first to protest against the annexation to Spain. Finding himself in Puerto Plata, he toured the city on horseback waving a flag while shouting: “Long live the Dominican flag, regardless of who it may be.” He was later sent to Cuba as a prisoner.^[3]

Mella was born in a period of economic and political decline. The inhabitants of the colony numbered roughly 65,000, of which had previously suffered a demographic collapse due to a large emigration of Dominicans to Venezuela, Cuba and Puerto Rico as a result of the session of Santo Domingo to France under the Treaty of Basel of 1795. In 1809, Juan Sánchez Ramírez, aided by Spanish and British forces, arrived in Santo Domingo and defeated the French soldiers in the War of Reconquista, effectively ending French rule in eastern Hispaniola. While Santo Domingo was back in the administration of Spain, Dominicans lived immersed in a social lethargy. The economy, once again, was stagnant and suffered one of the most severe crises remembered in colonial Dominican history. Cultural activities had ceased, and despite the university, only a few Dominicans had the privilege to attend. ^[4]

Like almost all of his ideals companions, Mella was a child when José Núñez de Caceres, an enlightened revolutionary, organized a revolt against the Spanish government and successfully declared independence on 1 December 1821. The newly independent nation was renamed as Republic of Spanish Haiti. Plans were made for the new nation to join the South American project, Gran Colombia, but these plans had little support, and its organizer, Simón Bolívar, was unwilling to lend his attention to Núñez de Caceres. But in February 1822, just two months after the independence, Jean Pierre Boyer, the president of neighboring Haiti, entered Dominican territory at the head of a large army and annexed the newly liberated nation. This marked the beginning of the Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo. ^[4]

Very little is known in regard to his school life, but perhaps due to the scarcity of public educational centers during his childhood and adolescence, it is believed that his parents chose to send him to the few "private schools" that were secretly available during that era. It was there that the young Mella would receive a proper education from respectable Dominican teachers.

From a young age, he had a latent talent for handling a sword and a sabre. Since his teenage years, he was known for being brave and fearless. He would spend his early life involving himself in productive work for his society. He did military service and acquired notoriety among his colleagues and superiors for his seriousness, responsibility, and his courage. The skill he exhibited in the handling of weapons was so great, that it is said that when his youthful companions of the town were confronted by groups of armed unscrupulous Haitians, who disrupted the nighttime entertainment, Mella intervened with admirable success. ^[4]

In 1835, when Mella was 19 years old, he served as head of the community of San Cristóbal. He devoted himself to cutting wood for a business, a habit that he shared with another colleague, Antonio Duvergé, who took note of Mella's proficiency of skill using a sabor and a sword. This, along with their shared opposition to Haitian rule, established a friendship between the two, which would then transcend and prove crucial in later years to come.

His years of wood cutting and commercial work allowed him to engage with multiple social sectors, thus allowing him to understand the social dynamics and the intricacies. But of course this was not just limited to the exploiters, but to the exploitative sector as well. However, as usual, this activity did not provide him with a fortune, but only with maintaining a modest and dignified standard of living. ^[5]

According to some historians, Mella also became affiliated with Freemasonry. He was said to have been part of a Masonic lodge, eventually becoming a freemason at the legal age of 21.

Marriage and family

Mella's elder son Ramón María Mella

Juan Antonio Mella, grandson of Mella

In August 1836, a 20-year-old Mella married Josefa Brea, the daughter of hero José Gertrudis Brea and Josefa Hernández, born on 14 February 1814. (Brea was also the first cousin of Doña Concepción Bona y Hernández de Gómez, who was responsible for making the first Dominican flag raised at the Puerta del Conde in February 1844. She died in Puerto Plata on 2 January 1899). A will revealed that the marriage lacked contributions from both sides of the union. It is alleged that some of the assets in which Mella acquired during the marriage may have been due to the inheritance he received after the passing of his father. It is also revealed that Mella was a devout Roman Catholic, as he declared with the following text from the same will:^[6]

I declare that I am of the Catholic, Apostolic and Roman religion, whose Church is directed and governed by the Holy Spirit, in whose faith and belief I was born, lived, and from now on I protest to live and die. Invoking for my help, from now on, for my death, the protection of the great Queen of angels, Mary Most Holy, so that by interceding with her most precious Son I may obtain the salvation of my soul, which I commend to God Our Lord, who created her. and redeemed, with the inestimable price of his blood. And the body sent to the land that I was forming...

Together, they produced 4 children: Ramón María, Dominga América María, Antonio Nicanor, and Ildefonso. Many of their descendants live in Dominican Republic, Cuba, and the United States.

• Ramon Maria, the eldest, witnessed his father's blunderbuss shot in 1844. He studied in Paris, worked a painter, and became an active official in the Dominican Restoration War. He later served as deputy for Santiago in 1866. He even fought in the Six Years' War against the government of Buenaventura Baez, until his death on 21 March 1868.
• Dominga Amèrica María, Mella's only daughter, was not active in politics.

• Ildefonso, who had also studied in Paris, worked as a lawyer, painter, and judge of First Instance in Puerto Plata. He even served as governor of the province.

• Antonio Nicanor, Mella's youngest son, also avoided taking part in politics, instead taking a job as a talor in Havana, Cuba. He was known as a tailor for high Cuban society at the time. He specialized in men's clothing "in the French style." He would go on to father Julio Antonio Mella, a Cuban activist who was later assassinated on the orders of dictator Gerardo Machado in Mexico City, Mexico.

Among the witnesses of Mella's wedding was Juan Isidro Perez, who befriended Mella. Perez, (who was later referred to as "The Illustrious Fool"), was a young activist who, like Mella, was aware of his Dominican identity and of the conditions taking place during that time; both men understood that the Dominicans were worthy of living in freedom and didn't deserve to continue enduring humiliation and oppression under foreign domination. It was this friendship that would integrate Mella to a scene of revolutionary reactions that were taking shape into Dominican society.

Confusion about his name

In his baptism certificate, marriage certificate as well as in his will and official documents such as his appointment as Minister of War and later Vice President of the Dominican Republic during the restoration government, it is stated that his name was Ramón Mella Castillo and he cannot be found. any historical support, except for a few documents that he signed as Mr. Mella and M. Ramón Mella, that his name was Matías Ramón Mella.

In various letters that he shared with his relatives and collaborators of the independence cause, they never referred to him as Matías and in fact, they did not mention his middle name, so it is not known how or why in some history texts their first names have been exchanged. Because of this, it has led to historical confusion about his name. But in most cases, he is referred to as Matías Ramón Mella.

First activities under Duarte

Juan Pablo Duarte

By 1838, Mella's friendship with Perez allowed him to be introduced to his mentor, Juan Pablo Duarte. Conveiniently, Duarte was looking to recruit new members for the nationalistic movement, La Trinitaria, a secret organization that seeks to establish an independent nation by liberating the Dominican people from Haitian rule. For Duarte and the other independence members, imbued with the nationalist and liberal ideology that had spread throughout Europe since the French Revolution, the former Spanish part of the island had its own identity and should become an independent state. Mella happily accepted this recruitment. He would also be introduced to other newly recruited members such as José María Serra de Castro, Feliz Maria Ruiz, and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez.

Over the next five years, the Trinitarios carried out various activities in order to propagate separatist and independence ideas to other Dominicans. However, when this movement was caught on by the Haitian authorities, it became necessary to create two other organizations, which were much more flexible than La Trinitaria - La Filantrópica and La Dramática, through which awareness-raising efforts were less compromising. Within these five years, Mella and Sánchez stood out from the rest of their companions, even earning Duarte's full confidence.^[7]

Duarte saw in Mella, a man of great discipline and leadership qualities, characteristics which Duarte deemed perfect to substitute for candidate Juan Nepomuceno Ravelo, after the failure of his mission to reach an alliance with the Haitians, by the commission of Duarte. Mella, at the request of Duarte, was sent to the Haitian village of Les Cayes, with the mission of looking for allies to form a reform movement, with the purpose of overthrowing Boyer's regime in January 1843. There, Mella stayed at the house of Jérôme-Maximilien Borgella, a Haitian general and politician, who was also a former governor of Santo Domingo. Meanwhile, Boyer's acceptance had begun to wane because of the excessive rise in taxes, the benefits of which did not revert to the population, but to France, to which Boyer had promised compensation in exchange for recognizing Haitian independence. In this way, groups opposed to the Boyer regime arose in Haiti itself. By this time the island had become increasingly frustrated with Boyer's repressive dictatorship, combined with his negligent response following a sudden earthquake that had struck Haiti a year earlier, and was plotting to overthrow the government, a situation to which Duarte believed could be used as an advantage.^[8]

Charles Rivière-Herard

Subsequently, Mella came into contact with the Haitian opposition leader Charles Rivière-Hérard, who in turn led the reform movement, which came to be known as La Reforma, in March 1843. It only took Mella several days to reach an agreement with the revolutionaries. Thanks to Mella's demonstration of diplomatic skills, the Trinitarios placed themselves in a solid position against the Haitian Reformists and were able to organize themselves in favor of the movement. However, for Hérard, he was completely unaware of the Dominicans' true purpose was to prepare for the definitive separation of the Haitian government. On 24 March, Mella, along with Sánchez, Perez, and Pedro Alejandro Piña met at Plaza del Carmen to proclaim the Dominican adherence to the Reform movement. ^[4][7] After a month and a half of military operations in the vast southern peninsula of Haiti, Boyer's troops were defeated, causing Boyer to flee the island, ending his reign if tyranny once and for all. ^[9]

It can be inferred that the Triniatrios and the Haitian liberals in the city of Santo Domingo did not have much strength, as they had to wait for the news to arrive that Boyer had resigned to start an uprising in favor of La Reforma. In fact, many people spontaneously took to the streets when news of the events in the Haitian capital became known. But the Trinitarios placed themselves at the forefront of the demonstrations, thus becoming the representatives of the population's desires. Mella was one of those who stood out in the events that led to the capitulation of the Boyer's troops of Santo Domingo. He, along with Duarte, was among the member ps2 of the Popular Board of Santo Domingo, a local body of power in which Trinitarios and Haitian liberals coexisted. Relations between the two sectors quickly deteriorated. The Trinitarios began to carry out almost open independence propaganda, and on the basis of that preaching, they won the local elections held on June 15 in Santo Domingo. At this moment the rupture between Haitian liberals (reformists) and Dominican liberals (Trinitarios) was consummated. ^[9]

In June of that same year, Duarte, who considered necessary it for the next stage of the cause, entrusted Mella to return to Santo Domingo with the mission of disseminating the political ideas advocated by the revolutionaries. At that time, debates arose in the eastern portion of the island about who would obtain the representation of the Dominicans, causing friction between liberals and conservatives. Thus, in July 1843, Mella departed from Les Ceyes, and moved to the Central Cibao to continue promoting his republican Ideals for independence. However, Hérard, who was now the president of Haiti, learned of the true motives of Mella and his companions, and traveled to the eastern part of the island to arrest the conspirators. He would imprison Mella, (who was arrested in San Francisco de Macorís), in Port-au-Prince, where he remained for two months. However, in this very city a rebellion erupted against Hérard, who was only able to dominate with the help of Mella and the incarcerated veterans whom he freed.^[7] Herárd mistakenly considered that the insurrectional attempts of the Dominicans had ceased and was persuaded that they lacked sufficient power to crystallize independence because the eastern part was branded as poor, distant and sparsely populated. (In fact, from a demographic point of view, Haiti had approximately 800,000 inhabitants compared Santo Domingo, whose population numbered only 135,000 inhabitants).^[10]

Manifesto of 16 January 1844

As civil unrest continued to erupt in Haiti, Mella used the opportunity to return to Santo Domingo to proceed to the next phase of independence. But by now, Duarte was not present due to his exile when learning of the tenacious persecution that would be made against him by the Haitians. This left the Trinitarios without their leader. Therefore, in agreement with Vicente Celestino Duarte, Francisco del Rosario Sánchez, Tomas de la Concha, Jacinto de la Concha, Gabino Puello and José Joaquín Puello, they were left to lead the revolution and declare independence. It was agreed then that the date of which the declaration of Independence and the birth of the new nation was arranged for 27 February 1844.

However, following the Reform movement, the political situation of the eastern portion of the island became extremely effervescent. According to historian José Gabriel García, there was widespread concern to the point that all was left to do was for the statement to be made. However, clashes between the Trinitarios and various groups (pro- French and pro-Spanish separatists) disputed the primacy of the revolutionary movement and the new order of the change that was approaching. Mella, however, considered it necessary to align with these groups to further push the revolution, despite strong objections from Sánchez. But after coming to an agreement, the Trinitarios were now backed by the conservative sector in a temporary alliance. This paved the way for the separation from Haiti to become a concrete fact. In January 1844, Sánchez drafted a manifesto of independence, and at Mella's suggestion, handed it over to the conservative Tomas Bobadilla for publishing. The final version, which was produced on 16 January, featured signatures from collective members between both parties, including Mella, Sánchez, Bobadilla, and many others.

Return to the Cibao

Battle of Santiago, the second major battle of the Dominican-Haitian War, was fought on 30 March 1844, led by General Jose María Imbert.

Duarte's return to the island

After the proclamation of the First Republic, Mella took part in the Central Government Board, with Sánchez serving as president. On 2 March 1844, Mella sent a letter to Duarte, Pérez and Pińa, all of whom were in Curaçao, informing them of the success of the revolt and of affairs of the Dominican Republic. A few days later, Mella had left for the Cibao in order to direct the defense against the Haitians and proceed to the organization of the new state in said region, the most important in the country from the economic wealth and the size of its population. With the rank of colonel and delegate of the board, Mella proposed to organize the defense around the city of Santiago, believing that the city would prove to be vital in the war. Mella was aware that if the city was captured, the road to the capital would be clear for the enemy troops. Upon reaching the city, he replaced the weapons commander. He then realized then the city lacked soldiers, so he left a command chart and a combat plan before marching towards San José de Las Matas, then known as La Sierra, to recruit more soldiers. He also left the instruction of forcing the characters to subordinate themselves to the influential leaders, from the northwest line, of the new government who were still hesitating, avoiding actions of small conflicts against the Haitians and to concentrate all resources to defend Santiago, since defending the city was an easier tactic. Mella even considered the fact that since Santiago was far from the border, the invading troops would have to endure an exhausting march as well as supply difficulties. ^[11]

He used that time to enlist José María Imbert, from Moca, as second in command of the newly constituted National Army, which would later become the Liberation Army. Mella would also assume the position of governor of Santiago and delegate of the Central Government Board, acting as chief political and general for the army.

But at that moment, Mella received news from Cap-Haïtien that the new Haitian president, Jean-Louis Pierrot, who did not accept the independence of the Dominican Republic, was approaching Santiago. With this sudden update, Mella heads out on tour throughout the region to not only warn his comrades, but also enlist more soldiers, but not before giving instructions to Imbert, who was now the lieutenant, to combat the upcoming attack. This was a success, as Imbert's forces were able to fend off the attack and drive the Haitian army out of the country in the Battle of Santiago.

Over the next two months, Mella dedicated himself to consolidating the defense of the region and ordered the advance of Dominican troops to the border. As a representative of the liberal Trinitarios, Mella faced opposition from conservative sectors of the region, who obeyed the guidance of the majority of the Government Board. Despite of this, Mella obtained broad support, which was a sign that liberal positions found greater acceptance in Cibao than in Santo Domingo. (The capital was the focus of the conservative group, as the residence of the leading sectors from the country. On the other hand, in the southern region, there were social relations that largely had their origin in colonial times, especially extensive livestock farming. On the other hand, in the surroundings of Santiago, tobacco production had been developing, allowing the emergence of a peasantry linked to the market and a more modern and dynamic urban middle class than that existing in Santo Domingo). ^[12]

Military Coup and exile

Bust of Mella en Puerto del Conde

Events took a different turn following the victory in the Battle of Azua. With the independence of the Dominican Republic now installed, and Duarte's return to the country, Mella voted to elect him as president of the Central Government Board with the purpose of preventing another annexation by any foreign power. He would address this in a letter to Sánchez:^[6]

These towns had no more disturbances than the coming of the Delegation; This ended with the arrival of Juan Pablo, thank God! Finally, I conclude by telling you that my wish has arrived and I will return it, President of the Dominican Republic.

But by now, Sánchez was no longer in power. The board was under the presidency of Bobadilla that the organization proposed, through the letter of 8 March 1844 addressed to the Consul of France, the French protectorate, which evidently implied a return to the Levasseur Plan. In addition to Bobadilla, Sánchez, Caminero, Valverde, Félix Mercenario, Echevarría and Carlos Moren signed this letter. But Mella's signature does not appear there: on that date he was on a trip to Cibao. Bobadilla had not yet assumed the Presidency of the Board, when it agreed to send the schooner “Leonor” to Curacao in search of Duarte, who arrived in the capital on 14 March 1844 and was immediately incorporated into the Central Government Board. After learning of Bobadilla's annexationist plans, Duarte, backed by Mella and Sánchez, launched a military coup. On 9 June 1844, representatives of the “protectionist” sector were toppled, and Sánchez was reinstated. The new Board withdrew the powers of that Commission, and Mella felt free to act. He then concentrated his efforts on promoting a movement aimed at bringing Duarte—in whom he continued to see the immaculate teacher—to the Presidency of the Republic. The new Board ordered Duarte to go to Cibao, and on 4 July 1844, the people of Santiago hailed him as President.

Meanwhile, Pedro Santana, backed by his troops and by the tacit alliance they had reached with the French Consul and the most prominent members of the “colonialist” group, headed towards the capital of the new State, with the purpose of assuming the entire power. Eager to avoid this event, Juan Isidro Pérez and Pedro Alejandrino Pina did everything possible to organize a solid defense in the city. Unfortunately, Santana crossed the capital's walls on 12 July 1844 and established a new Central Government Board.

Immediately, the Trinitarios were persecuted: Duarte was reduced to prison in Puerto Plata, and Mella himself suffered the same fate. Under pressure from some prestigious figures in the area, Mella decided to go to Santo Domingo to negotiate with Santana on behalf of Cibao. Upon arriving at the end of August, he was immediately reduced to prison, which gave the signal for all Cibaeño authorities to decide to abide by Santana's authority. The hostility towards Mella was led by General Francisco A. Salcedo, but other figures with a hesitant stance, such as General Antonio López Villanueva, decided to join the conservative Junta. In fact, no one dared to support Duarte after Mella left Santiago.^[13]That same day, the new government issued the resolution that declared them, like Mella, Pina, Sánchez and others, traitors to the country, and condemned them to permanent exile. While in exile, Mella chose to settle in Puerto Rico, opting to remain close to his homeland.

Return

Battle of Las Carreras

Eventually in 1848, Mella, along with Sánchez, was granted an amnesty decreed by president Manuel Jimenes to return to the country. A few weeks after arriving in the country, he attempted to hatch a conspiracy against the Jiménes administration, which he rightly accused of being improvident and inept. But he gave up the purpose, since he encountered the opposition of Pina, Sánchez and Juan Evangelista Jiménez, who had also returned to the homeland protected by the amnesty decree. He then resettled in Puerto Plata, working in the woodcuts, away from political affairs. That was until 1849, when Haitian forces invaded the country once again, in which Mella joined the army and stood out as a soldier in the famous Battle of Las Carreras. He was said to have occupied Palmar de Ocoa to repel the attack of the invading Haitian army, securing Dominican victory.

After delivering the famous defeat to the Haitian troops, Santana ignored the Jiménez government. Mella became linked to Santana, who appointed him his private secretary. Like Sánchez, Mella saw that there was no possibility of reconstituting a liberal grouping, so he believed it was necessary to integrate into current politics. Now, the two heroes took largely divergent positions in the politics of the time: while Sánchez associated with Buenaventura Báez, Mella maintained a constant relationship with Santana. Mella made the mistake of supporting the autocrat in associating the fate of the country with the protection of a power. This position opens a difficult stage to evaluate in the life of Mella, who as part of the leadership team that surrounded Santana, remained silent in the face of the ruler's despotic actions. However, he did not renounce his liberal conceptions; Even when he accepted the establishment of a protectorate, at all times he conditioned it on respecting the independent status of the State. ^[14]

When Baez became president in September 1849, Mella was appointed Secretary of State for Commerce and the Treasury. He even briefly served as Minister of Finance of the Dominican Republic from 1849 to 1850. After serving his term, Mella once again retired to his home in Puerto Plata. For unknown reasons, Mella did not reconcile with Báez, instead choosing to align himself with Santana. Thus, upon Santana's return to power, Mella denounced Báez and even advocated to banished him. ^[14]

When Santana returned for a third term, Mella became a Secretary for his government. In addition, he was named Commander of Arms, Governor, and was even sent on a special mission to the government of Spain to manage the recognition of Independence in 1854. This mission lasted for six months. It has been argued that during negotiations, Spanish officials attempted to persuade Mella to instead propose a protectorate to the Dominican government, rather than recognize independence. Mella, still holding onto the morals of the Trinitarios, flatly rejected an offer he deemed as a despicable proposition. However, in one of the documents that he presented to the Spanish government, he stated that Spain is the legitimate owner of the territory of the Dominican Republic, and that the protectorate over the latter meant for the old Metropolis one more guarantee, over those it may have today to be preserved indefinitely in the Caribbean. In May 1854, Mella decided to return to the Dominican Republic, but not before addressing in a farewell letter to the Count of San Luis, who was the President of the Council of Ministers, the reluctance of the Spanish government to recognize the independence of the Dominican Republic. In that letter, he writes:^[15]

Denied by Spain the recognition of the independence of the Republic; that is to say, having denied everything that today would surely make the Haitian invasion impossible or frustrating, it only remains for me to go to the point of danger to consecrate to my country and my family the services that I owe them as a citizen, as a soldier and as a father. The case is serious and urgent; There is no time to lose; and the days that I spend here outside of mine are long and eternal centuries for my just how painful impatience.

Upon his return from Spain, Mella asked to be given a mission in Puerto Plata for the purpose of attending his mahogany court. After declining the position of Secretary of War, he was appointed to Commander of Arms for the city. He even accepted the position of governor of La Vega and became of one Santana's advisors.

By 1856, there was another threat to Dominican sovereignty. The Spanish consul, Don Antonio María Segovia, conspiring with Báez, carried out a plan to destabilize Santana's administration. This was due to the fact that Mella's mission in Madrid had failed, causing Santana to turn his attention to the United states for a protectorate. Alarmed, Spain reconsidered the recognition of Dominican independence to cease detrimental effects on its control of Cuba, an island that the U.S aspired to annex. This resulted in a political scandal known as La Matricula de Segovia. This angered Mella, who like many others, strongly opposed this act of disrespect of Dominican independence. During a meeting at the National Palace, Mella exclaimed with the following: "The Constitutional Government has enough force of law to be respected and save the Nation. I, the Government, take Segovia, I wrap him in his flag, and expel him from the country." Santana, however, did not share his views. In July 1856, he was tasked to draft a bill with the purpose of organizing the army, once again demonstrating his skills as a combatant and military man. He was even nominated for the position of Vice President, but he rejected, instead suggesting the position to Felipe Alfau. The position was eventually filled by Manuel de Regla Mota, but resigned after a short term, handing the seat back to Báez, whose first act was to order Santana's arrest and expulsion off the island. Santana's supporters, including Mella, were spared from persecution.^[16]

Cibaeño Revolution and aftermath

José Desiderio Valvérde

When the revolution against Buenaventura Baez began in Santiago on 7 July 1857, who with his economic mistakes had led the country to the threshold of a financial catastrophe, Mella was one of the first to join that movement of liberal and neo-Duartist orientation. In this famous civil war, Mella consolidated his immense military prestige with the audacious seizure of Plaza de Semaná, which he personally directed at the beginning of May 1858. For his heroic action, he received one of the most brilliant and jubilant receptions that the people of Santiago gave him, of which the government was headed by José Desiderio Valverde. Although they did not coincide in frontal combat, the revolution put Mella and his old friend, Francisco del Rosario Sánchez, on opposing sides.^[17]

By the end of the 1850s, the nation fell into political and economic turmoil. Báez had ruled the country under a corrupt bureaucracy. He would bankrupt the national treasury for his profit, and propose that the country be annexed to the United States. Santana, on the other hand, presided over the country with Báez, but ruled the nation under military dictatorship. He would eventually overthrow and send Báez into exile. During his administrations, Santana continued to propose that the country be annexed by Spain, which Mella strongly rejected. Also plunging the nation's economy were the constant Haitian invasions. Haiti had already made numerous attempts to reconquer the Dominican Republic, but each attempt was crushed by the Dominicans, who despite being greatly outnumbered, managed to successfully rebel off every invasion so far. These attempts would intensify as Haiti's new leader, Faustin Soulouque, who later declared himself emperor, made more drastic and desperate attempts to bring the island under his control. From 1849 to 1856, Soulouque made numerous attempts to reconquer the Dominican Republic, each at the head of a 30,000-man army, with the purpose of reinstalling Haitian rule. Despite his best efforts, his army retreated after suffering heavy losses, and Soulouque came close to falling into the hands of the Dominican army. His support eroded over the years, mostly from Haitian women, fearful of losing their sons, brothers, and husbands in these failed invasions. He would later be overthrown in a coup d'état, led by his former general Fabre Geffrard, in 1859, and sent into exile in Jamaica. He returned to Haiti at some point just in time to see Geffrard himself be overthrown in 1867, and died that same year at age 84.

Return of Spanish rule

Queen Isabella II, portrait by German painter Franz Saver Winterhalter.

Despite the country's independence being secured, the nation was still in a crisis. Following the conclusion of the war, Santana had inherited a bankrupt government that was on the brink of collapse. The misrule of his power, as well as the aftermath of Baez's corrupt government, drastically exhausted the nation's treasury. Faced with the economic turmoil, and fearful of another invasion from Haiti, Santana turned to a foreign power for protection. After failing to reach an agreement with France, he eventually turned to Spain, with Queen Isabella II. In exchange for honorary privileges, military and economic intervention, Santana agreed to return the Dominican Republic back to colonial status. Spain, who by now was losing control of most of its former colonies, used this opportunity to reinsert its control in Latin America. The U.S., busy with its Civil War, was left unable to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. This decision caused a national uproar among the population. Mella, of course, did not accept this, and along with his fellow patriots, pledged their full opposition to the annexation. But because of this, he would be imprisoned by Santana, who confined him to the fearsome Tower of Homage, (present-day Ozama Fortress) for 72 days. He would later be deported to Saint Thomas. Mella endured illness and poverty, and supported himself with the small aid from the government. Although he was allowed to return, he once again expressed his opposition against the annexation, and was deported for the last time.

On 20 March 1861, the annexation to Spain was finalized, and Spanish troops had already begun to arrive in the country. With no time to waste, Mella made his way back to his homeland. But this would come with difficulty as Mella was without resources or military support. While on board an English ship that was stranded in Puerto Rico, he unsuccessfully attempted to ask the crew for support to go ashore on Dominican land and take command of the force with the purpose of starting his revolution.

On 3 June 1861, he wrote a letter to Santana, once again proclaiming his opposition of the annexation, and denouncing Santana's actions as treacherous. He writes:

General, the time has come to remind you by means of this letter that I am not a subject of his Catholic Majesty, nor have I exchanged nor do I wish to exchange my nationality for any other, having sworn since February 27, 1844 to be a citizen of the Dominican Republic, for whose independence and sovereignty I have provided my services, and offering them when my limited capacity and little value have allowed me. For the same reasons, it has never occurred to me to think, let alone pretend, to be a Spanish general, whose title in me as a Dominican general who has rendered no service to Spain, was a sarcasm that making me ridiculous, would at the same time make me the object of discreet distrust among the Spaniards. But I have never been nor will I be opposed to my country maintaining, along with Spain and the other educated nations of Europe and America, such good relationships that in them you find the strongest support for your well-being, under the kind of recognition of your absolute independence and autonomy. What has been said is enough for my purpose, adding lastly that I will fulfill my duty in the way that is possible, always as a son and citizen of the Dominican Republic, in whose position I salute you.

With this uncompromising statement in the fave of Santana's betrayal, he regained his stature as a hero. But due to his health, he was unable to join Sánchez in his expedition into the Dominican Republic. A month later, he learned the unfortunate news that Sánchez, betrayed and ambushed, was executed on the orders of Santana for opposing Spanish rule on 4 July 1861.

Assistance to the rebels

Illustration of an ambush by insurgents in Santo Domingo.

After Sánchez's execution, Mella remained attentive to the evolution of events, looking for a way to restart the fight against Spanish rule. On two separate occasions, he tried to enter the country through Puerto Plata, but was surprised by the Spanish authorities. By 15 August 1863, having slipped passed the authorities by pretending to accept Spanish citizenship, Mella was back on the island. With his return, he immediately integrated himself into the heroic struggle that raged from the Cibao to restore the Republic. In mid-September, he was acquired into the Restorative government that had formed in Santago.^[18] He traveled through numerous sectors of the south, with the task of rounding up restoration troops for general Pedro Florentino. He was also able to align himself with the young revolutionary, Gregorio Luperón. By December 1863, the news even spread in Puerto Plata that "General Mella has collected ten thousand tobacco serones from the merchants with the intention of shipping them to Montecristi or Haiti to the North and bringing war supplies."

For his contributions, he was appointed Minister of War, in his first act in this position was to create a war manual for the soldiers, which he produced in January 1864. This manual consisted of military regulations and advice to campaign commanders of the Dominican Army on the kind of war they should wage on the occupying Spanish forces. (After the war, it was taken to the United States Military Academy). He had observed that frontal encounters led to the defeat of the Dominicans, as had happened to President José Antonio Salcedo, Pepillo, in San Pedro, in January 1864. He issued a circular regarding the use of the guerrilla method. In the text, which condensed his military genius and his understanding with the Dominican environment, he argued that the disadvantages in organization and weapons forced the Dominicans to adopt a guerrilla warfare tactic, anticipating the theoretical expositions on this tactic. ^[19] Among these military provisions, the following can be mentioned:^[6]

Around the same time, Mella issued his final manifesto. He proclaimed himself in support of the rebels, declaring to the Dominicans to rise up arms against the Spanish Empire to restore national independence, and even called for the end of Spanish rule in the Caribbean. He expressed his words in the following content:^[6]

Dominicans:

The Republic has called us to arms! And I, doing my duty, have come to take my place among you. I am a soldier of the February 27 column, you know me, and I come to call the few of my people, whom the lies and brute force of their oppressors still keep separated from their former ranks. Sandoval, Lluberes, Sosa, Maldonado, Juan Suero, Valera, Marcos Evangelista, Juan Rosa, Gatón, do not forget that the Republic that gave you glory and fame is the place of honor where your companions await you: the Dominican Republic has never ceased to exist; neither betrayal nor gallows could annihilate her. The heroes of the Capitillo camp are also the soldiers of March 30, 1844. Their principles are the same today. They picked up the flag of the cross that the unfortunate General Sánchez left behind on his grave in El Cercado.

There he was the first martyr of Independence... There is his shadow calling to arms! And the Puellos, Duvergé and his son, Concha, Matías de Vargas, Pedro Ignancio Espaillat, Perdomo, Vidal, Batista and their companions, sacrificed for Santana, they rise beyond the sepulcher asking for Revenge! Revenge!

Dominicans! Hear that patriotic lament of so many martyrs of freedom! And you, Eusebio Puello, listen to the one who speaks to your conscience to tell you: "Leave the ranks of the murderer of your brothers... do not desecrate the blood that innocents shed to leave you a free homeland anymire!"

Seibanos, Duvergé and his son, Albert and Dalmau ask you for revenge...! And you, my friends from Santo Domingo, do not forget that Santana was the murderer of Trinidad Sánchez!

Revenge asks the homeland!

DOMINICANS! I do not come as a disturber of order, armed with the dagger of the treacherous murderer, nor with the torch of the wild arsonist: the mission that I have and the one that I have imposed on myself is that of a civilized and Christian soldier. It is not my purpose to excite you to a useless rebellion, but it is my duty as a free citizen to make us understand that insurrection is not a crime when it has become the only means to shake off oppression; but the indifferentism that sustains and feeds it is no small crime.

DOMINICANS! The days have already arrived in which Spain, the only nation that persists in keeping slaves, must lose its colonies in the Antilles. America must belong to itself; that is how God arranged it, when between it and old Europe he placed the immensity of the Ocean. If the punishment of the fields of Carabobo, Boyacá and Junìn, nor the Genius of Bolívar, has not been enough to convince Spain of this truth, here is the saber of our soldiers and the climate of Santo Domingo.

Dominicans! Respect for rights and property.

Homeland, honor and humanity.

Such is the currency with which I want to see you reach the temple of fame.

-Santiago, January 16, 1864, R. Mella

At the time of the Capotillo Outcry (Grito de Capotillo) (16 August 1863), already very ill, Mella served as Vice President of the Dominican Republic in the government of the Restoration. In this capacity he was commissioned as a government delegate in the south, a mission he accepted despite his deteriorating state of health, aware of the difficulties faced by the national war in the region. He made the journey to San Juan through Jarabacoa and Constanza in February 1864. He was unable to fulfill his mission, due to the resistance offered by General Juan de Jesús Salcedo, a subject lacking any patriotic condition. Mella stayed only a few days at his destination and had to return through rugged roads in Haiti. That trip worsened his health, eaten away by cancer. The government of Santiago had to send him a litter so he could reach the city. ^[20]

Final visit from Duarte, death, and aftermath

After 20 years of exile, Duarte returned to Dominican Republic, using the time to greet his ailing comrade.

On 27 March 1864, Mella was visited by Duarte, who had just arrived in the country during this time, at his home. Duarte had used this opportunity to greet his ailing comrade one last time.^[21] The hero Manuel Rodríguez Objío described the visit of Juan Pablo Duarte to Mella with the following words:

He visited the illustrious Mella on March 7, a soldier of two great eras, who was prostrated on his deathbed in small house, one of the improvised ones after the fire and near Fort San Luis. Duarte hugged him there, after 20 years of separation, not without ceasing to express his indignation at the extreme poverty in which that man who became a great military leader and with the category of patriot and national hero found himself. Mella told Duarte that given the impossibility of living to see his homeland free of foreign hosts, he wanted to be buried in the grave wrapped in the national flag as a shroud. This request moved Duarte who could not help but shed some tears while giving him the last hug.

On 4 June 1864, in the midst of the bloody war, Mella, the beloved founding father and honorable revolutionary, died in his small home near San Luis Fortress, at the young age of 48. Before he died, Mella garnished the last bit of strength and mouthed his final words: "There is a still homeland, Long Live the Dominican Republic." He was accompanied by his wife, Josefa, family members and some neighbors. In accordance to his final wishes, his body was wrapped around the Dominican flag, and buried as he desired.

The Dominican Restoration War continued on after his death throughout the nation. Many on both sides were lost, but thanks to Mella's war manuel, this became a crucial asset for the Dominican rebels, whom despite once again facing an outnumering, and very powerful army, would still oversee more victories against Spain. This ultimately lead to the decisive victory of the Dominicans, who, (yet again), triumphed over the Spanish Empire, successfully expelling the Spanish forces off the island and restoring the national independence in 1865. Santana, discraced and facing trial, died on 29 June 1864, 25 days after Mella's death.