Reuven Bar-On is an Israeli psychologist and one of the leading pioneers, theorists and researchers in emotional intelligence.[1] Bar-On is thought to be the first to introduce the concept of an “EQ” (“Emotional Quotient”) to measure “emotional and social competence”,[2][3] although the acronym was used earlier to describe ideas that were not associated with emotional intelligence per se.[4] In the first copy of his doctoral dissertation, which was submitted in 1985, Bar-On proposed a quantitative approach to creating “an EQ analogous to an IQ score”.[2]

Reuven Bar-On
Born (1944-05-15) 15 May 1944
San Diego, California, United States of America
OccupationClinical psychologist
Known forEmotional intelligence
Websitereuvenbaron.com

Contributions to the field of emotional intelligence

Bar-On developed a conceptual and psychometric model of emotional intelligence (or “emotional and social competence” as he originally referred to this construct in his doctoral dissertation[3]); and since 1982, has been examining the ability of this model to predict various aspects of human behavior and performance. The Bar-On model is described as one of the three major models of emotional intelligence in the Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology,[1] although other variations of these models have surfaced over the years.

The Bar-On concept of emotional and social intelligence

Bar-On created his model of emotional and social intelligence to expand psychological assessment. The focus of his doctoral research was psychological well-being. He wanted to include a wider range of contributors to behavior and performance.[3][5] While working as a clinical psychologist, he became influenced by the emerging field of positive psychology[6] and began shifting his interest from psychopathology to assessing and developing emotional intelligence which he argued is an integral part of positive psychology (in 2010).

In a review of the theoretical foundations for his model, Bar-On refers to the influence of Charles Darwin's work on the adaptive importance of emotional expression, as recorded in Darwin's 1872 publication, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.[7]

Bar-On's conceptual model describes an array of interrelated emotional and social competencies that determine how effective individuals are at understanding and expressing themselves, understanding others and interacting with them as well as coping with daily demands and challenges.[1][5][8][9][10] These competencies are clustered into the following five meta-factors: (1) the ability to be aware of emotions as well as to understand and express feelings; (2) the ability to understand how others feel and interact with them; (3) the ability to manage and control emotions; (4) the ability to manage change, adapt and solve problems of a personal and interpersonal nature; and (5) the ability to generate positive affect to enhance self-motivation, in order to facilitate emotionally and socially intelligent behavior. These five meta-factors comprise a total of 15 factors.

Bar-On's measure of emotional and social intelligence

In 1982, Bar-On began developing the precursor of the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory™ (EQ-i™), which was designed to study and assess the emotional and social competencies he identified.[3] The specific process involved in developing this self-report measure, how it was normed and validated as well as its psychometric properties are described elsewhere in much greater detail[3][5][9] and by the author in numerous other publications. The 1997 published version of this assessment psychometric instrument comprises 133 items clustered into 15 scales, which loaded on the five composite scales assessing the five meta-factors described above.

The EQ-i™ was the first measure of emotional intelligence to be published by a psychological test publisher[5] and the first such measure to be peer-reviewed in the Mental Measurement Yearbook, which described it as valid and reliable measure of the emotional intelligence concept.[9] According to what has been posted on the publisher's website (www.mhs.com), the EQ-i™ was translated into more than 30 languages and used extensively worldwide.

In addition to the self-report measure described here, a multi-rater version – the Bar-On EQ-360™ – was developed in 2003 and also peer-reviewed in the Mental Measurement Yearbook.[11] A youth version for children and adolescents – the Bar-On EQ-i:YV™ – was developed before that in 2000, based on the Bar-On model as well. The Bar-On EQ-i:YV™ was the first psychometric instrument to be published that was specifically designed to assess emotionally intelligent behavior in children and adolescents. In addition to being reviewed in the Mental Measurement Yearbook,[12] it was selected by a team of psychometricians at the University of Oxford as the emotional intelligence test of choice for children, and was recommended to the British Department of Education for use in schools throughout the United Kingdom.[13]

Bar-On's original 1997 version of the EQ-i™ was revised in 2011by Multi-Health Systems; and the resultant EQ-i 2.0™ was released in 2012.[5] As is the case with other assessment instruments, the revision was conducted in an effort to avoid the language from becoming dated.[14] According to the publisher's technical manual, the EQ-i 2.0™ is described as a revised psychometric instrument based on the original Bar-On model.[5] The manual reveals that the overall correlation between the EQ-i 2.0™ and the original EQ-i™ is .90 and that the correlations between the scales of the two versions range from .49 to .90; and based on a series of factor analyses that were conducted, the findings support, for the most part, the original 15-factor structure and the 5-meta-factor structure of the Bar-On conceptual model.[5]

The predictive ability of the Bar-On model

Although a few scholars have questioned the construct validity of the Bar-On model,[15][16][17][18][19] findings indicate that the Bar-On model of emotional intelligence significantly affects: (1) physical health;[20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27] (2) cognitive functioning,[20][27] didactic effectiveness,[28][29][30][31] academic performance[32][33][34][35][36][37] and career decision-making;[38][39][40][41][42] (3) occupational performance and leadership,[20][43][44][45][46][47][48] job satisfaction[49] and organizational effectiveness;[50][51][52][53][54][55] (4) creativity and innovative thinking;[56][57][58][59] and (5) psychological health and well-being.[3][20][23][60][61][62][63][64][65]

In addition to the validity studies referenced here as well as the reviews mentioned in the Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology[1] and in the Mental Measurement Yearbook,[9] other researchers have also concluded that the Bar-On model is a valid and reliable measure of emotional and social intelligence.[66][67][68][69] Additionally, Bar-On has authored or co-authored more than 40 publications describing his model including its predictive ability and applicability; and these publications have been cited in thousands of other publications, including peer-reviewed articles and doctoral dissertations.

Academic honors

For his contribution to the field of emotional intelligence, Bar-On was nominated for an Honorary Doctorate Degree by the University of Pretoria in 2006, received a Fellowship in the Royal Society of Arts in 2008, and was invited to present a keynote address at the 30th International Congress of Psychology, held in Cape Town in 2012.[70]

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Cherniss, C (2004). Emotional intelligence. In C. Spielberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of applied psychology, Vol. 2. Oxford, UK: Elsevier. pp. 315–321.
  2. 1 2 The "Emotional Quotient" ("EQ") was described on page 419 of a copy of Reuven Bar-On’s doctoral dissertation submitted to Rhodes University in July 1985. In that it was accepted by two of the three readers and not unanimously, it was revised, resubmitted and eventually accepted.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bar-On, R. (1988). The development of a concept of psychological well-being. Doctoral dissertation, Rhodes University, South Africa.
  4. ↑ Wells, W. D. (1964). EQ, son of EQ, and the reaction profile. Journal of Marketing, 28(4), 45-52.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Multi-Health Systems (2011). The Emotional Quotient Inventory 2.0: User’s handbook. Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems.
  6. ↑ Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology. ''American Psychologist'', ''55''(''1''), 5-14.
  7. ↑ Bar-On, R. (2006), The Bar-On Model of Emotional-Social Intelligence (ESI), originally published in Psicothema, 18, supl., 13-25, accessed 18 October 2021
  8. ↑ Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. (2000). Models of emotional intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 396-420.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Plake, B. S., & Impara, J. C. (Eds.) (2001). Test reviews of the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory. The fourteenth mental measurement yearbook. Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute for Mental Measurement.
  10. ↑ Gowing, M. K. (2001). Measurement of individual emotional competence. In C. Cherniss and D. Goleman (Eds.), The emotionally intelligent workplace: How to select for, measure, and improve emotional intelligence in individuals, groups, and organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, pp. 83-131.
  11. ↑ Spies, R. A., & Plake, B. S. (Eds.) (2005). Test reviews of the Bar-On Emotional Quotient 360. The sixteenth mental measurement yearbook. Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute for Mental Measurement.
  12. ↑ Plake, B. S., Impara, J. C., & Spies, R. A. (Eds.) (2003). Test reviews of the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory Youth Version. The fifteenth mental measurement yearbook. Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute for Mental Measurement.
  13. ↑ Stewart-Brown, S., & Edmunds, L. (2003). Assessing emotional competence in preschool and primary school settings: A review of instruments. Perspectives in Education, 21(4), 17-40.
  14. ↑ Butcher, J. N. (2000). Revising psychological tests: Lessons learned from the revision of the MMPI. Psychological Assessment, 12(3), 263-271.
  15. ↑ Daus, Catherine S.; Ashkanasy, Neal M. (2003). "Will the real emotional intelligence please stand up." On deconstructing the emotional intelligence "debate". The Industrial–Organizational Psychologist. 41 (2): 69–72.
  16. ↑ Murphy, Kevin R. A critique of emotional intelligence: what are the problems and how can they be fixed?. Psychology Press, 2014.
  17. ↑ Brackett, M. A.; Mayer, J. D. (2003). "Convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of competing measures of emotional intelligence". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 29 (9): 1147–1158. doi:10.1177/0146167203254596. PMID 15189610. S2CID 5744173.
  18. ↑ Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., & Roberts, R. D. (2002). Emotional intelligence: Science and myth. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
  19. ↑ Zeidner, M.; Matthews, G.; Roberts, R. D. (2001). "Slow down, you move too fast: Emotional intelligence remains an "elusive" intelligence". Emotion. 1 (3): 265–275. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.265. PMID 12934686.
  20. 1 2 3 4 Fund, S. (2001). The emotional intelligence study. Tel-Aviv, Israel: IDF Department of Human Resources.
  21. ↑ Slaski, M.; Cartwright, S. (2002). "Health, performance and emotional intelligence: An exploratory study of retail managers". Stress and Health. 18 (2): 63–68. doi:10.1002/smi.926.
  22. ↑ Slaski, M.; Cartwright, S. (2003). "Emotional intelligence training and performance and its implications for stress, health and performance". Stress and Health. 19 (4): 233–239. doi:10.1002/smi.979.
  23. 1 2 Taylor, G. J., & Taylor-Allan, H. L. (2007). Applying emotional intelligence in understanding and treating physical and psychological disorders: What we have learned from alexithymia. In R. Bar-On, J. G. Maree and M. J. Elias (Eds.), Educating people to be emotionally intelligent. Westport, CT: Praeger. pp. 211–223.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ↑ Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Thorsteinsson, E. B., Bhullar, N., & Rooke, S. E. (2007). "A meta-analytic investigation of the relationship between emotional intelligence and health". Personality and Individual Differences. 42 (6): 921–933. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.003.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ↑ Yalcin, B. M., Karahan, T. F., Ozcelik, M., & Igde, F. A. (2008). "The effects of an emotional intelligence program on the quality of life and well-being of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus". The Diabetes Educator. 34 (6): 1013–1024. doi:10.1177/0145721708327303. PMID 19075083. S2CID 3426065.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ↑ Martins, A., Ramalho, N., & Morin, E. (2010). "A comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and health". Personality and Individual Differences. 49 (6): 554–664. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.029.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. 1 2 Van der Westhuizen; C. N.; & Maree; J. G. (2006). "Thinking skills and problem-solving: An inclusive approach". Gifted Education International. 21 (3): 98–101.
  28. ↑ Haskett, R. A. (2002). Emotional intelligence and teaching success in higher education. Doctoral dissertation submitted to Anderson University.
  29. ↑ Haskett, R. A., & Bean, J. P. (2005). "Emotional intelligence and teaching success in higher education". The Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education. 1 (1): 13–22.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ↑ Van der Westhuizen, C., & Maree, J. G. (2006). "Some thoughts on the training of teachers of gifted learners". Gifted Education International. 21 (2–3): 201–217. doi:10.1177/026142940602100311. hdl:2263/3255. S2CID 144631295.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ↑ Sadri, E.; Akbarzadeh, N.; Poushaneh, K. (2009). "Impact of social-emotional learning skills instruction on emotional intelligence of male high school students". Psychological Research. 11 (22): 69–83.
  32. ↑ Freedman, J. (2003). "Key lessons from 35 years of social-emotional education: How Self-Science builds self-awareness, positive relationships, and healthy decision-making". Perspectives in Education. 21 (4): 69–80.
  33. ↑ Parker, J. D. A., Creque, R. E., Barnhart, D. L., Harris, J. I., Majeski, S. A., Wood, L. M., Bond, B. J., & Hogan, M. J. (2004). "Academic achievement in high school: Does emotional intelligence matter?". Personality and Individual Differences. 37 (7): 1321–1330. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.01.002.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ↑ Parker, J. D. A., Summerfeldt, L. J., Hogan, M. J., & Majeski, S. (2004). "Emotional intelligence and academic success: Examining the transition from high school to university". Personality and Individual Differences. 36: 163–172. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00076-x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ↑ Parker, J. D. A., Hogan, M. J., Eastabroock, J. M., Oke, A., & Wood, L. M. (2006). "Emotional intelligence and student retention: Predicting the successful transition from high school to university". Personality and Individual Differences. 41 (7): 1329–1336. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.04.022.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ↑ Stewart-Brown, S., & Edmunds, L. (2007). Assessing emotional intelligence in children: A review of existing measures of emotional and social competence. In R. Bar-On, J. G. Maree, & M. J. Elias (Eds.), Educating people to be emotionally intelligent. Westport, CT: Praeger. pp. 241–257.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ↑ McCown, K., Jensen, A. L., & Freedman, J. (2007). The Self-Science approach to social-emotional learning. In R. Bar-On, J. G. Maree, & M. J. Elias (Eds.), Educating people to be emotionally intelligent. Westport, CT: Praeger. pp. 109–121.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ↑ Maree, J. G., & Ebersöhn, L. (2008). Applying positive psychology to career development interventions with disadvantaged adolescents. In V. Skorikov and W. Patton, W. (Eds.). Theorising children's and adolescents' career development. Sydney, Australia: Sense Publishers. pp. 313–324.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ↑ Di Fabio, A., & Palazzeschi, L. (2009). "Emotional intelligence, personality traits and career decision difficulties". International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance. 9 (2): 135–146. doi:10.1007/s10775-009-9162-3. S2CID 144232297.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ↑ Maree, J. G., & Bester, S. (2010). Obtaining, developing and enhancing an emotional intelligence profile. In J. G. Maree (Ed.). Career counselling: Methods that work. Cape Town, South Africa: Juta Academic. pp. 83–94.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ↑ Maree, J. G. (2013). "Latest developments in career counselling in South Africa: Towards a positive approach". South African Journal of Psychology. 43 (4): 409–421. doi:10.1177/0081246313504691. hdl:2263/32871. S2CID 40741021.
  42. ↑ Maree, J. G., & Symington, C. (2015). "Life design counselling effects on the career adaptability of learners in a selective independent school setting". Journal for Psychology in Africa. 25 (2): 143–150. doi:10.1080/14330237.2015.1021531. hdl:2263/45637. S2CID 142293751.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  55. ↑ "Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations" (PDF). August 2010.
  56. ↑ Maree, J. G., & Ebersöhn, L. (2002). "Emotional intelligence and achievement: Redefining giftedness?". Gifted Education International. 16 (3): 261–273. doi:10.1177/026142940201600309. S2CID 145754516.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  57. ↑ Maree, J. G (2006). A fairer deal for the gifted disadvantaged in rural areas in South Africa. In B. Wallace and G. Erikson (Eds.), Diversity in gifted education international perspectives on global issues. London, UK: Routledge. pp. 136–142.
  58. ↑ Van der Westhuizen; C. N.; & Maree; J. G. (2008). "Diversity in gifted education: International perspectives on global issues". Gifted Education International. 24 (1): 94–107.
  59. ↑ Maree, J. G., & Van der Westhuizen, C. N. (2009). Giftedness and diversity: Research and education in Africa. In L. V. Shavinia (Ed.), The handbook on giftedness. New London, CT: Springer Science. pp. 1409–1426.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  60. ↑ Parker, J. D. A., Taylor, G. J., & Bagby, R. M. (2001). "Relationship between emotional intelligence and alexithymia". Personality and Individual Differences. 30: 107–115. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00014-3.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. ↑ Soklofske, D. H., Austin, E. J., & Minski, P. S. (2003). "Factor structure and validity of a trait emotional intelligence measure". Personality and Individual Differences. 34 (4): 707–721. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(02)00056-9.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  62. ↑ Austin, E. J., Saklofske, D. H., & Egar, V. (2005). "Personality, well-being and health correlates of trait emotional intelligence". Personality and Individual Differences. 38 (3): 547–558. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.05.009.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  63. ↑ Day, A. L., Therrien, D. L., & Carroll, S. A. (2005). "Predicting psychological health: Assessing the incremental validity of emotional intelligence beyond personality, Type A behaviour and daily hassles". European Journal of Personality. 19 (6): 519–536. doi:10.1002/per.552. S2CID 144508804.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  64. ↑ Ebersohn, L. E., & Maree, J. G. (2006). "Demonstrating resilience in an HIV&AIDS context: An emotional intelligence perspective". Gifted Education International. 21 (2): 14–30. doi:10.1177/026142940602200105. S2CID 54710934.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  65. ↑ Stohl, L., Dangerfield, D., Christensen, J., Justice, D., & Mottonen, D. (2007). Applying emotional intelligence in treating individuals with severe psychiatric disorders: A psychotherapeutic model for educating people to be emotionally intelligent. In R. Bar-On, J. G. Maree, & M. J. Elias (Eds.), Educating people to be emotionally intelligent. Westport, CT: Praeger. pp. 225–240.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  66. ↑ Dawda, R.; Hart, S. D. (2000). "Assessing emotional intelligence: Reliability and validity of the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) in university students". Personality and Individual Differences. 28 (4): 797–812. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00139-7.
  67. ↑ Newsome, S.; Day, A. L.; Cantano, V. M. (2000). "Assessing the predictive validity of emotional intelligence". Personality and Individual Differences. 29 (6): 1005–1016. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00250-0.
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  69. ↑ Derksen, J.; Kramer, L.; Katzko, M. (2002). "Does a self-report measure of emotional intelligence assess something different than general intelligence?". Personality and Individual Differences. 32: 37–48. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00004-6.
  70. ↑ International Union of Psychological Science, International Congress of Psychology, accessed 14 October 2021
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