Sino-Korean vocabulary or Hanja-eo (Korean: 한자어; Hanja: 漢字語) refers to Korean words of Chinese origin. Sino-Korean vocabulary includes words borrowed directly from Chinese, as well as new Korean words created from Chinese characters, and words borrowed from Sino-Japanese vocabulary. Many of these terms were borrowed during the height of Chinese-language literature on Korean culture. Subsequently, many of these words have also been truncated or altered for the Korean language.
Estimates of the percentage of Sino-Korean ranges from as low as 30%[1] to as high as 70%.[2] According to the Standard Korean Language Dictionary published by the National Institute of Korean Language (NIKL), Sino-Korean represents approximately 57% of the Korean vocabulary.[3]
History
The use of Chinese and Chinese characters in Korea dates back to at least 194 BCE. While Sino-Korean words were widely used during the Three Kingdoms period, they became even more popular during the Silla period. During this time, male aristocrats changed their given names to Sino-Korean names. Additionally, the government changed all official titles and place names in the country to Sino-Korean.[4]
Sino-Korean words remained popular during the Goryeo and Joseon periods.[4] Ultimately, the majority of Sino-Korean words were introduced before 1945, including Sino-Japanese words themselves that were introduced to Korea during Japanese Occupation.[5] In the contemporary era, Sino-Korean vocabulary has continued to grow in South Korea, where the meanings of Chinese characters are used to produce new words in Korean that do not exist in Chinese. By contrast, North Korean policy has called for many Sino-Korean words to be replaced by native Korean terms.[6]
Usage
Sino-Korean words constitute a large portion of South Korean vocabulary, the remainder being native Korean words and loanwords from other languages, such as Japanese and English to a lesser extent. Sino-Korean words are typically used in formal or literary contexts,[5] and to express abstract or complex ideas.[7]
All Korean surnames and most Korean given names are Sino-Korean.[4] Additionally, Korean numerals can be expressed with Sino-Korean and native Korean words, though each set of numerals has different purposes.[7]
Sino-Korean words may be written either in the Korean alphabet, known as Hangul, or in Chinese characters, known as Hanja.[8]
Examples
Words borrowed from Chinese
Sino-Korean words borrowed directly from Chinese come mainly from Chinese classics, literature, and colloquial Chinese.[6]
| Word | Korean (RR) | Hanja | Hanja meaning | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| parents | 부모 (bumo) | 父母 | "father mother" | [9] |
| student | 학생 (haksaeng) | 學生 | "study student" | [10] |
| sun | 태양 (taeyang) | 太陽 | "great light" | [11] |
| question | 질문 (jilmun) | 質問 | "background ask" | [12] |
Words created in Korea using Chinese characters
These words below were created in Korea using Chinese characters. They are not used in China, Japan, nor Vietnam.
| Definition | Korean | Revised Romanization | Hanja |
|---|---|---|---|
| false; rumor; canard | 낭설 | nangseol | 浪說 |
| marital compatibility; well-suited; well-matched | 궁합 | gunghap | 宮合 |
| common cold | 감기 | gamgi | 感氣 |
| deceptive; trickster | 고단수 | godansu | 高段數 |
| hardship; trouble; suffering | 고생 | gosaeng | 苦生 |
| notebook | 공책 | gongchaek | 空冊 |
| determiner (grammar); prenoun | 관형사 | gwanhyeongsa | 冠形詞 |
| prison; penitentiary | 교도소 | gyodoso | 矯導所 |
| assortment (of goods) | 구색 | gusaek | 具色 |
| a joke | 농담 | nongdam | 弄談 |
| unity; join; combine | 단합 | danhap | 團合 |
| reply; response; answer | 답장 | dapjang | 答狀 |
| fortune; lucky | 다행 | dahaeng | 多幸 |
| cod(fish) | 대구 | daegu | 大口 |
| mass transportation; public transit | 대중교통 | daejung-gyotong | 大衆交通 |
| site; land mass | 대지 | daeji | 垈地 |
| indebtedness | 덕분 | deokbun | 德分 |
| subcontract | 도급 | dogeup | 都給 |
| unmarried young man; bachelor; youngster | 도령 | doryeong | 道令 |
| flu; influenza | 독감 | dokgam | 毒感 |
| same age | 동갑 | donggap | 同甲 |
| sense of kinship | 동질감 | dongjilgam | 同質感 |
| beer | 맥주 | maekju | 麥酒 |
| pollock | 명태 | myeongtae | 明太 |
| (national) holiday | 명절 | myeongjeol | 名節 |
| business card containing name | 명함 | myeongham | 名銜 |
| carpenter | 목수 | moksu | 木手 |
| extinction; annihilation | 몰사 | molsa | 沒死 |
| massacre; slaughter; extermination | 몰살 | molsal | 沒殺 |
| hibiscus | 무궁화 | mugunghwa | 無窮花 |
| visit to sick person | 문병 | munbyeong | 問病 |
| questioning; interrogating | 문초 | muncho | 問招 |
| uneasy; uncomfortable; to be apologetic | 미안 | mian | 未安 |
| public harm | 민폐 | minpye | 民弊 |
| sitting cushion; sitting mat | 방석 | bangseok | 方席 |
| lottery ticket | 복권 | bokgwon | 福券 |
| real estate agency | 복덕방 | bokdeokbang | 福德房 |
| off-season; slow season | 비수기 | bisugi | 非需期 |
| ice rink | 빙상장 | bingsangjang | 氷上場 |
| cemetery; grave; tomb | 산소 | sanso | 山所 |
| fish (specifically prepared as food) | 생선 | saengseon | 生鮮 |
| stonemason | 석수 | seoksu | 石手 |
| present; gift | 선물 | seonmul | 膳物 |
| peak season; busy season | 성수기 | seongsugi | 盛需期 |
| (your) name | 성함 | seongham | 姓銜 |
| sexual harassment | 성희롱 | seonghuirong | 性戲弄 |
| duty; responsibility; task | 소임 | soim | 所任 |
| precious; valuable | 소중 | sojung | 所重 |
| trip; picnic; excursion | 소풍 | sopung | 逍風 |
| cheque | 수표 | supyo | 手票 |
| beginning of; start of; embark upon | 시작 | sijak | 始作 |
| earnestly request | 신신당부 | sinsindangbu | 申申當付 |
| child actor or actress | 아역 | ayeok | 兒役 |
| seize; distrainment; sequestration | 압류 | amnyu (apryu) | 押留 |
| bad term; grudge | 앙숙 | angsuk | 怏宿 |
| uproar; clamor; commotion | 야단 | yadan | 惹端 |
| socks | 양말 | yangmal | 洋襪 |
| heartlessness; mercilessness | 야박 | yabak | 野薄 |
| as expected; also | 역시 | yeoksi | 亦是 |
| yellow-green; light green | 연두 | yeondu | 軟豆 |
| alien; extraterrestrial | 외계인 | oegyein | 外界人 |
| native speaker | 원어민 | woneomin | 原語民 |
| exclave | 월경지 | wolgyeongji | 越境地 |
| beginning; commencing | 위시 | wisi | 爲始 |
| lean on; depend on; rely on | 의지 | uiji | 依支 |
| move; relocate | 이사 | isa | 移徙 |
| rice-planting machine | 이앙기 | ianggi | 移秧機 |
| behalf | 자기편 | jagipyeon | 自己便 |
| determination; decision; plan | 작정 | jakjeong | 作定 |
| gloves; mittens | 장갑 | janggap | 掌匣 / 掌甲 |
| lease; charter | 전세 | jeonse | 專貰 |
| procedure (for); process (of); steps; proceedings | 절차 | jeolcha | 節次 |
| lovers' talk | 정담 | jeongdam | 情談 |
| identity | 정체성 | jeongcheseong | 正體性 |
| bakery; bakeshop | 제과점 | jegwajeom | 製菓店 |
| gas station | 주유소 | juyuso | 注油所 |
| kettle | 주전자 | jujeonja | 酒煎子 |
| sorry; pardon; regrettable | 죄송 | joesong | 罪悚 |
| purse; wallet | 지갑 | jigap | 紙匣 |
| order; turn; table of contents | 차례 | charye | 次例 |
| bookstore | 책방 | chaekbang | 冊房 |
| window | 창문 | changmun | 窓門 |
| ceiling | 천장 | cheonjang | 天障 |
| wedding invitation | 청첩장 | cheongcheopjang | 請牒狀 |
| elementary school | 초등학교 | chodeung-hakgyo | 初等學校 |
| elementary school student | 초등학생 | chodeung-haksaeng | 初等學生 |
| spring fatigue | 춘곤증 | chungonjeung | 春困症 |
| release; launch | 출시 | chulsi | 出市 |
| stairs; stairway; staircase | 층계 | cheunggye | 層階 |
| friend | 친구 | chingu | 親舊 |
| spring of clock; clockwork | 태엽 | taeyeop | 胎葉 |
| consilience | 통섭 | tongseop | 統攝 |
| convenience store | 편의점 | pyeoneuijeom | 便宜店 |
| letter; epistle | 편지 | pyeonji | 便紙 |
| a visit; a trip; travelling | 행차 | haengcha | 行次 |
| brag; bluff; boast | 허풍 | heopung | 虛風 |
| cash | 현찰 | hyeonchal | 現札 |
| circumstances; conditions | 형편 | hyeongpyeon | 形便 |
| go crazy; be out of one's mind | 환장 | hwanjang | 換腸 |
| change of seasons; in-between seasons | 환절기 | hwanjeolgi | 換節期 |
Words borrowed from Sino-Japanese
Sino-Korean words borrowed from Sino-Japanese are used only in Korean and Japanese, not in Chinese.[6]
| Word | Hangul (RR) | Hanja | Hanja meaning[4] | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| airplane | 비행기 (bihaenggi) | 飛行機 | "fly go machine" | [13] |
| movie | 영화 (yeonghwa) | 映畵 | "shine picture" | [14] |
Phonetic correspondences
Initial consonants
| Middle Chinese | Sino-Korean[15][16] | |
|---|---|---|
| Labials | 幫 p | p/pʰ[lower-alpha 1] |
| 滂 pʰ | ||
| 並 b | ||
| 明 m | m | |
| Dentals | 端 t | t/tʰ[lower-alpha 1][lower-alpha 2] |
| 透 tʰ | ||
| 定 d | ||
| 泥 n | n | |
| 來 l | l | |
| Retroflex stops | 知 ʈ | t/tʰ[lower-alpha 1][lower-alpha 3] |
| 徹 ʈʰ | ||
| 澄 ɖ | ||
| Dental sibilants | 精 ts | tɕ/tɕʰ[lower-alpha 1] |
| 清 tsʰ | ||
| 從 dz | ||
| 心 s | s | |
| 邪 z | ||
| Retroflex sibilants | 莊 ʈʂ | tɕ/tɕʰ[lower-alpha 1] |
| 初 ʈʂʰ | ||
| 崇 ɖʐ | s/tɕ/tɕʰ[lower-alpha 1] | |
| 生 ʂ | s | |
| Palatals | 章 tɕ | tɕ/tɕʰ[lower-alpha 1] |
| 昌 tɕʰ | ||
| 禪 dʑ | s | |
| 書 ɕ | ||
| 船 ʑ | ||
| 日 ɲ | z > ∅ | |
| Velars | 見 k | k/h |
| 溪 kʰ | ||
| 群 ɡ | k | |
| 疑 ŋ | ŋ > ∅ | |
| Laryngeals | 影 ʔ | ʔ > ∅ |
| 曉 x | h | |
| 匣 ɣ |
Final consonants
The Middle Chinese final consonants were semivowels (or glides) /j/ and /w/, nasals /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/, and stops /p/, /t/ and /k/. Sino-Korean preserves all the distinctions between final nasals and stops. Although Old Korean had a /t/ coda, words with the Middle Chinese coda /t/ have /l/ in Sino-Korean, reflecting a northern variety of Late Middle Chinese in which final /t/ had weakened to /r/.[18][19]
| Middle Chinese | Sino-Korean[20] |
|---|---|
| -m | m |
| -n | n |
| -ng | ŋ |
| -p | p |
| -t | l |
| -k | k |
See also
References
- ↑ Kim, Jin-su (2009-09-11). 우리말 70%가 한자말? 일제가 왜곡한 거라네 [Our language is 70% hanja? Japanese Empire distortion]. The Hankyoreh (in Korean). Retrieved 2009-09-11. The dictionary mentioned is 우리말 큰 사전. Seoul: Hangul Hakhoe. 1992. OCLC 27072560.
- ↑ 허철 (June 2010). "Examination how many using compound of chinese character words and investigate the frequency of use by using analysis of Modern Korean words 1, 2". Journal of Chinese Characters Education in Korea. null (34): 221–244. doi:10.17963/ccek.2010..34.221. ISSN 1225-1321.
- ↑ Choo, Miho; O'Grady, William (1996). Handbook of Korean Vocabulary: An Approach to Word Recognition and Comprehension. University of Hawaii Press. pp. ix. ISBN 0824818156.
- 1 2 3 4 Sohn, Ho-Min (2006). Korean Language in Culture And Society. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 44–55. ISBN 0824826949.
- 1 2 Choo, Miho (2008). Using Korean: A Guide to Contemporary Usage. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–92. ISBN 978-1139471398.
- 1 2 3 Lee, Peter H. (2003). A History of Korean Literature. Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–25. ISBN 1139440861.
- 1 2 Byon, Andrew Sangpil (2017). Modern Korean Grammar: A Practical Guide. Taylor & Francis. pp. 3–18. ISBN 978-1351741293.
- ↑ Choo, Miho; O'Grady, William (1996). Handbook of Korean Vocabulary: An Approach to Word Recognition and Comprehension. University of Hawaii Press. pp. ix. ISBN 0824818156.
- ↑ "父母". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.
- ↑ "學生". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.
- ↑ "太陽". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.
- ↑ "質問". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.
- ↑ "飛行機". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.
- ↑ "映畫". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.
- ↑ Miyake (2004), pp. 119–122.
- ↑ Qian (2018), pp. 104.
- ↑ Miyake (2004), p. 115.
- ↑ Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 69.
- ↑ Miyake (2004), p. 113.
- ↑ Miyake (2004), pp. 113, 116.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In early prescriptive dictionaries, Middle Chinese aspirates always yield Sino-Korean aspirates, but in actual pronunciation aspiration is unpredictable.[17]
- ↑ In Modern Sino-Korean, dentals [t]/[tʰ] preceding a palatal approximant [j] become palatalized as [tɕ]/[tɕʰ], respectively, e.g. 田: ttyen > cen, 定: ttyeng > ceng.
- ↑ In Modern Sino-Korean, dentals [t]/[tʰ] preceding a palatal approximant [j] become palatalized as [tɕ]/[tɕʰ], respectively, e.g. 田: ttyen > cen, 定: ttyeng > ceng.