A kho-kho defensive player (center) runs from one half of the court to the other to avoid being touched by an opponent.

India has several traditional games and sports,[1] some of which have been played for thousands of years.[2][3][4] Their popularity has greatly declined in the modern era, with Western sports having overtaken them in India during the British Raj,[5] and the Indian government now making some efforts to revive them.[6][7] Many of these games do not require much equipment or playing space.[8] Some of them are only played in certain regions of India, or may be known by different names and played under different rules and regulations in different regions of the country.[9][10] Many Indian games are also similar to other traditional South Asian games.

Association of Traditional Sports and Games, India

The president of the Arunachal Olympic Association, Padi Richo, was unanimously chosen as the president of the Association of Traditional Sports and Games, India (ATSGI), while Aman Kumar Sharma from Punjab assumed the position of Secretary-General.[11] The ATSGI is dedicated to revitalizing and fostering traditional games and sports, operating under the guidance of the International Council for Traditional Sports and Games (ICTSG) endorsed by UNESCO.[12]

History

An Indian stamp from 1990 commemorating the introduction of kabaddi, India's most popular traditional sport, into the Asian Games.

Ancient era

Kho-kho has been played since at least the fourth century BC.[13] Kabaddi and kho-kho may have had certain aspects of their gameplay mentioned in the Mahabharata, which was written before 300 AD.[3][4] Atya-patya is mentioned in the Naṟṟiṇai, written in 300 AD or before.[14] Chaturanga is an ancient board game which experienced various modifications as it was transmitted from India toward Europe and became the modern game of chess.[15] Some of these games were used for military training purposes;[16][17][14] constant warfare between Indians/against invaders forced an emphasis on physical activities related to fighting.[18] One example of this connection between sports and war was Abhimanyu's piercing of the Chakravyuha as depicted in the Mahabharata, which may have had a connection to the skills used in kabaddi and kho-kho.[4][19][20][21]

Traditional Indian games served various purposes throughout and had various connections to Indian history; for example, certain aspects of the Bengali hopscotch game of ekka-dokka may have represented concepts of social division of property,[22] kabaddi may have been used as a preparation for hunting,[23] and the Bengali tag game of gollachut may have represented escape attempts by agricultural slaves during the Indus Valley Civilization.[22] Hindu teachings placed emphasis on being physically fit, with the Kshatriya warrior caste in particular having to practice martial activities such as archery, while Buddhist teachings were more mixed; Buddha prohibited some traditional games which were considered to be causing negligence amongst people, though he himself played certain other games, such as archery and kabaddi.[24][25] Buddhist monks, who generally shunned violence, adopted the use of Indian martial arts to protect themselves.[18] Different activities were interrelated; the breathing aspects of kabaddi had connections with the pranayama breath-control techniques from yoga[26][27][28] (with kabaddi having been practiced by Buddha and other monks),[29] and the martial art of kalaripayattu was practiced in tandem with atya-patya by soldiers in Kerala.[14]

A few traditional Indian games have been noted for being similar to games throughout the Global Southeast, such as atya-patya,[14][30] whose Indonesian variant gobak sodor is pictured here.

Hunting for recreation was common through Indian history, and was partaken in by royals; it was done for a variety of reasons, such as proving manliness, for religious purposes, or simply for thrill-seeking purposes.[31][32][33] The emphasis on hunting coincided with an overall view of the forest as being an area to be conquered and used by the state, which resulted in conflict between kingdoms and forest-dwellers.[33][34][35] Though Hindu scriptures warned against excessive hunting of animals,[32] by the colonial era, some animal species had been hunted to extinction, such as cheetahs.[36]

Medieval era

During Mughal rule, some of the traditional games were greatly patronised and played in modified ways; for example, Akbar invented a version of polo which could be played at night by setting the ball on fire,[37][38][39] and played a magnified version of pachisi with courtesans acting as the pieces on the board.[40] Wrestling was popular at the time as well,[41] with Persian and Indian forms of wrestling merging to form pehlwani.[42]

Colonial era

A photo from 1870 depicting Hyderabadis preparing for pehlwani.

During the time of the British Raj, Indians began to focus more on playing British sports such as cricket, hockey, and football rather than their traditional sports.[5][43] Part of the reason behind this was so that they could rise up the ranks by imitating the culture of the colonisers;[44] later on, some Indians also started to see British sports as an activity in which they could "beat" their colonisers.[45] The British also at times pushed for the growth of Western physical culture, seeing it as a way to increase the uptake of British culture and values in India and arguing that Indian men were naturally effeminate and thus needed a more European physical regimen (see Muscular Christianity).[46][47][48][49] The British also used hunting as a way to establish imperial dominance and protect Indians from attacks by wild animals.[50][51][52]

A notable traditional sport which continued to be played during this time was polo, which the British helped to codify and support as an official sport.[49] Some British board games, such as Snakes and Ladders and Ludo, were also inspired by Indian board games.[53]

Some self-funded sports clubs, such as the akharas, promoted and organized competitions at various levels for traditional games during this time.[54] Traditional games and practices which were considered to embody masculine values, such as kabaddi and kushti, were promoted as a way to resist British accusations of effeminacy;[55] Sikhs in particular used their martial history as a way to distinguish themselves.[56] Various traditional games began to be standardized during this period,[57][58] and some of them were exhibited at the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games.[59] Some traditional games, such as kho-kho, were also exported to places like the Caribbean, Africa, and other parts of Asia where indentured Indian servants had been taken by the British.[60][61][62]

Post-colonial era

Khelo India is an initiative of the Indian government to organise sports competitions across the nation. Both Khelo India and the National Games of India include several indigenous sports.[63][64][65][9]

In post-Independent India, the traditional sports' popularity has greatly declined with the further growth of Western sports and online gaming.[66] Kabaddi is the most popular traditional sport, with the highest viewership and most career opportunities; its growth was spurred on by the creation of the Pro Kabaddi League.[67] Kabaddi's growth has led to it spreading outside of South Asia as well, with countries such as South Korea and Iran playing it.[68][69] Kho-kho has also had a franchise league started for it, Ultimate Kho Kho;[70] the Pro Kabaddi League and Ultimate Kho Kho are respectively the most and third-most viewed non-cricket competitions in India.[71] Panja (arm wrestling) has a professional competition called the Pro Panja League; its exhibition events have received hundreds of millions of views on social media.[72] Whereas in the past, traditional Indian games were often played on mud surfaces in rural areas, in the modern day they are often played on matted surfaces with changes to their rule sets and other aspects of their appearance to make them more appealing and exciting.[73][74][75] Some traditional games are also being digitalized so that they can be played as video games (see Desi Adda: Games of India).[76][77][78][79][80]

In addition, the Indian government is starting the Bharatiya Khel initiative to revive traditional Indian games with the view that they are more affordable for rural Indians to play, and are important for reviving Indian culture as well as increasing team spirit.[81][82] It is also planning to introduce some games like kabaddi and kho-kho into the Olympics if it wins a bid to host a future Olympic event.[83] The Fit India movement has also contributed to the revival of traditional Indian games, with schools required to include such games as part of physical education.[84]

At the state level, the Chhattisgarhiya Olympics is an annual Chhattisgarhi competition meant for celebrating traditional games; over 3 million people likely participated in the 2023 edition.[85] The Qila Raipur Sports Festival has been celebrating traditional Punjabi sports since 1933.[86]

Traditional games

Gilli Danda

Gilli Danda is similar to many other games around the world, such as the English game of tip-cat, and also has similarities to the popular Indian sport of cricket.[87] It is a game where a player hits a short stick on the ground up into the air using a longer stick held in their hand. They then hit the airborne stick with the hand-held stick again so that it travels as far as possible. If a player on the other team catches the stick before it touches the ground, then the hitter is out (eliminated).[88][89]

Nondi

Nondi (known by several other regional names) is a game similar to hopscotch. In it, several connected boxes are drawn on the ground, and players throw a rock or similar object onto one of the boxes and then attempt to hop their way to the box the rock lands in.[90]

Ball games

A pile of seven stones and a ball that can be used to play the game of seven stones.

Seven stones

This section is an excerpt from Seven stones § Gameplay.[edit]
A member of one team (the seekers) throws a ball at a pile of stones to knock them over. The seekers then try to restore the pile of stones while staying safe from the opposing team's (the hitters’) throws. The hitters' objective is to hit the seekers with the ball before they can reconstruct the stone pile. If the ball touches a seeker, that seeker is out and the team which the seeker came from continues, without the seeker. A seeker can always safeguard themselves by touching an opposite team member before the ball hits the seeker.

Maram pitti

This section is an excerpt from Maram Pitti.[edit]
Maram Pitti also known as Picchi Banti (పిచ్చి బంతి) in Telugu, is an Indian version of dodgeball. It is played with a rubber ball or tennis ball. It is played by a small group typically 5-6 in a small enclosed area or bylanes. It is also played solo, duo or in teams of 3+.[91]

Ball badminton

This section is an excerpt from Ball badminton.[edit]
Ball badminton is a sport native to India. It is a racket sport game, played with a yellow ball made of wool, on a court of fixed dimensions (12 by 24 metres) divided by a net. The game was played as early as 1856 by the royal family in Tanjore, the capital of Thanjavur district in Tamil Nadu, India. It enjoys the greatest popularity in India. Ball badminton is a fast-paced game; it demands skill, quick reflexes, good judgment, agility, and the ability to control the ball with one's wrist.[92]

Games involving simple objects

Marbles

Some Indian games involving marbles are also known as Kancha/Kanche or Golli Gundu. Several games are played involving players flicking marbles at other marbles, often in order to "capture" as many marbles as possible by the end of the game to win.[93][94][95]

Gutte

This section is an excerpt from Knucklebones § South Asia.[edit]
Children in Nepal playing astragaloi
In India, particularly in Tamil Nadu, the game is called anju kal ("5 stones"). It is played with 5–7 stones. It is played between two or more players in turn. The game is played in 5 rounds. Generally for first 4 rounds four stones are thrown on the floor. First round is to pick up 4 stones one by one. Second round is to pick 2 stones at a time. Third round is to pick 3 stones together and then pick one. Fourth round is to pick all four in one go. Last round is to toss all the stones from palm and place it on the back of the palm and then catch all four by tossing to above.

Variations of tag

There are several Indian variations of the game of tag (sometimes referred to in India as "running and catching" or pakdam pakdai),[96] with kabaddi and kho-kho being the two most popular such games and being played in professional leagues (Pro Kabaddi League and Ultimate Kho Kho respectively).[97][70]

Deciding who the denner is

In many Indian variations of tag, the player who is supposed to tag the other players is referred to as the "denner".[96][98] There are a number of ways of determining which player should be the denner; one such method is Saa Boo Three (also known as pugam pugai), in which three players face one of their hands either up or down, and if one of them faces their hand the opposite direction of the other two, then that player is the denner.[99][100]

Kabaddi

This section is an excerpt from Kabaddi.[edit]
Kabaddi being played at the 2018 Asian Games
Kabaddi is a contact team sport played between two teams of seven players, originating in ancient India.[101] The objective of the game is for a single player on offense, referred to as a "raider", to run into the opposing team's half of the court, touch out as many of their players as possible, and return to their own half of the court, all without being tackled by the defenders in 30 seconds. Points are scored for each player tagged by the raider, while the opposing team earns a point for stopping the raider. Players are taken out of the game if they are touched or tackled, but are brought back in for each point scored by their team from a tag or a tackle.

Kho-kho

This section is an excerpt from Kho kho.[edit]
Kho kho playing in Govt middle school, Nallambal, Karaikal

Kho kho is a traditional Indian sport that dates back to ancient India.[102][103] It is the second-most popular traditional tag game in the Indian subcontinent after kabaddi.[104] Kho kho is played on a rectangular court with a central lane connecting two poles which are at either end of the court. During the game, nine players from the chasing team (attacking team) are on the field, with eight of them sitting (crouched) in the central lane, while three runners from the defending team run around the court and try to avoid being touched.[103] Each sitting player on the chasing team faces the opposite half of the field that their adjacent teammates are facing.

At any time, one player from the chasing team (the 'active chaser'/'attacker') may run around the court to attempt to tag (touch) members of the defending team, with one point scored per tag, and each tagged defender required to leave the field; however, the active chaser cannot cross the central lane to access the other half of the field, and cannot change direction once they start running toward either pole. The chasing team can get around these restrictions if the active chaser either switches roles with a sitting teammate (by touching them on the back while saying "Kho") who is facing the other half of the court and therefore has access to it, or runs to the area behind either pole and then switches direction/half. Each team has two turns to score and two turns to defend, with each turn lasting nine minutes. The team that scores the most points by the end of the game wins.[105]

Langdi

This section is an excerpt from Langdi (sport).[edit]
School kids play langadi during a inter-school competition
Langdi (Hindi: लंगड़ी) is a traditional Indian field sport which combines elements of tag and hopscotch.[106] It was originally played during the Pandiyan Dynasty and called "Nondiyaattam" at that time. The teams alternate chasing (attacking) and defending roles in each of the 4 innings of the game, with the chasing team's players restricted to hopping around on one foot, and attempting to score points by tagging as many defenders as possible within the 9 minutes of each inning. It is described by Marathis as a sport with a Marathi ethos.[107]

Atya-patya

This section is an excerpt from Atya patya.[edit]
Atya patya (Hindi: आट्यापाट्या) is a traditional Indian tag sport played by two sides of nine players. It is more popular in rural areas of India. It is more commonly played in Maharashtra, a western Indian state.[108] Atya patya is described as a "game of feints".[109] The playing area comprises nine trenches, coming out of either side of a central trench; a point is awarded to the attacking team's players for each trench they cross without being tagged out by the defensive players within the trenches.[110] The game ends after 4 innings (scoring turns) of 7 minutes each, with each team having two innings to score. It has been described as a game of "militant chase".[111] The sport is played in a relatively small area and requires no equipment, similar to other games indigenous to India such as kabaddi, seven stones, kho kho, gillidanda and langdi.[109]

Chor Police

This section is an excerpt from Chor Police (game).[edit]
Chor Police (transl. Thief and Police),[112] also known as Chor Sipahi,[113][114] is an outdoor role-playing game played by children in Indian subcontinent. The game is usually played by children divided into two teams with no limit of players. One team acts as police and another one acts as thieves within a narrative.[115][116] Police players chase chor (thieves) in an attempt to catch and mark them defeated.

Oonch Neech

This section is an excerpt from Oonch Neech.[edit]
In Oonch neech if the denner (tagger) says neech (down), all players have to go to an elevated area. If he says oonch (up) then all players have to stay down. Whatever the denner picks, he has to stay on that platform.

Dog and the bone

In Dog and the Bone (known by various names in India, such as "Cheel Jhapatta", and more commonly in other parts of the world as "steal the bacon"), there is an object placed in the center of the field, with two teams placed on opposite ends of the field. One player from each team rushes towards the object to try to take it back to their team; a point is scored either if a player successfully retrieves the object, or if a player tags an opponent who is holding the object before the opponent safely makes it back.[9]

River or mountain

River or mountain, which is known as Nadee-Parvat in Hindi, and Nadi ki Pahad in Marathi and other regional languages, is a game where the field is divided into areas referred to as "rivers" and "mountains". At the start of play, the denner shouts out either "river" or "mountain", with all players then attempting to go to the areas referred to by the denner. While outside of those areas, the players can be tagged and eliminated by the denner.[9]

Surr

This section is an excerpt from Surr.[edit]
Surr playing field
The game is played on a rectangular field, divided into four equal quadrants, by two teams of two to four players each.[117] The attacking team gathers in one quadrant, and the defending team gathers along the quadrant's borders with the adjoining quadrants. The objective of the attacking team is to enter the other quadrants without being touched by the players of the defending team. If all the members of the attacking team manage to enter all the quadrants, the attacking team wins, and its members shout "Bol Den Goivan Surr!".[118] In an Awadhi variation, they sing "Bol Goiyan Banva Surr" ("बोल गोइयां बणवा सुर्र");[117] if they are touched by the defending team, they lose, and have to stand on the quadrant line as "thieves", and have to sing another phrase.[119]

Chain tag

Chain tag involves the denner tagging other players, who are then required to form a chain with the denner by holding hands. Only the two players at either end of the chain can tag the remaining players (since they have a free hand not trapped in the chain.) The game ends once all players are part of the chain.[9][120]

Lock and key

Also prominently known as Vish-Amrit/Vish-Amrut (Poison-Antidote), lock and key is similar to the Western game of freeze tag, in which the denner(s) can "freeze" opponents by tagging them, with the frozen players' teammates able to "unfreeze" them by tagging them. A unique feature of lock and key is that players may be required to shout out "lock" or "key", as appropriate, when tagging other players.[9][121]

Aankh micholi

Blindfolded player in Aankh micholi

Aankh micholi is the Hindi name for blind man's buff (blindfolded tag).[122]

Kokla chappaki

One player goes around all the other players, who sit in a circle, and eventually drops a handkerchief behind one of them. That player must grab the cloth and then attempt to tag the first player.[123]

Four corners

Players attempt to run between the four corners of a square without being tagged by the denner, who is in the middle of the square.[90] In a Telugu variation of the game, Nalugu Stambalata, there is a pole in each corner of the square that the players must touch.[9] In Maharashtra, the game is known as "Khamb-Khambolya".[124]

Gella-Chutt

This section is an excerpt from Gella-Chutt.[edit]
Gella-Chutt (transl. "the king ran away") is a traditional Indian game from Tripura.[125][126] In the game, one team has a king stationed in a "prison", which is at a distance from the "home" area. The goal of the king is to reach home with the help of his teammates ("guards") without being tagged by the opponents.[127]

Tree-climbing monkey

The denner tries to tag players who can climb up trees to escape; these players can try to touch a stick kept within a circle on the ground in order to become safe from the denner.[128][129] Variants of this game are also known as "Surparambya" or "Surparambi".[130][131][132][133]

Labbo-Daal

Also known as "kiss the stick" or "Soljhapta" in Bengali,[134] this variation of tree-climbing monkey sees the denner attempting to rush back to kiss the stick after tagging another player, while the other players try to thwart the denner by picking the stick up and throwing it away before the denner can kiss it.[135]

Chappa-pani

Players who are squatting can't be tagged by the denner in this game, but they can only stand up when touched by players who are standing up.[133][124] This game is also known as Uthali.[136]

Limbdi-pipali

Players can avoid being tagged in this game by hanging onto something overhead (such as a tree branch).[136]

Vagh-bakri

One player is the "shepherd", and all but one of the players, known as "lambs" or "goats", form a chain behind the shepherd by grabbing each other's waists. The lambs are required to remain in this chain formation. The last player (the "tiger") has to try to capture the lambs by getting around the shepherd, who is allowed to move around. Once a lamb is tagged, they become the new tiger and play restarts.[133][124]

Combat sports

Archery

This section is an excerpt from Dhanurveda § History.[edit]
Dhanurveda describes the practices and uses of archery, bow- and arrow-making, military training, and rules of engagement. The treatise discusses martial arts in relation to the training of warriors, charioteers, cavalry, elephant warriors, infantry etc. It was considered a sin to shoot a warrior in the back and to fight more than one warrior at a time. The bow used in the Vedic period were called danush, and were described in detail in the Vedas. The curved shape of the bow is called vakra in Artha Veda. The bowstring was called jya, and was strung only when needed. An arrow was called an iṣu, and a quiver was called an iṣudhi.[137]

Wrestling

Panja (arm wrestling)

This section is an excerpt from Arm wrestling.[edit]
Arm wrestling (also spelled armwrestling) is a sport with two opponents who face each other with their bent elbows placed on a table and hands firmly gripped, who then attempt to force the opponent's hand down to the table top ("pin" them). The sport is often casually used to demonstrate the stronger person between two or more people.

Arm wrestling is a popular pastime in India, with India having a professional arm wrestling competition known as the Pro Panja League.[138]

Gatta gusthi

This section is an excerpt from Gatta gusthi.[edit]
Freestyle gusthi in Madurai
Gatta gusthi is a form of submission wrestling practiced in Kerala, India. It is competed inside an open ring on the ground, usually on a beach, known as godha. Wrestlers are called phayalvans. The sport consists of around 100 techniques. Gatta gusthi was popular in the state until the arrival of freestyle wrestling and karate in late 1960s. Its freestyle form is known simply as gusthi.

Pehlwani

This section is an excerpt from Pehlwani.[edit]
Pehlwani,[139] also known as Kushti, is a form of wrestling contested in the South Asia. It was developed in the Mughal Empire by combining Persian Koshti pahlevani with influences from native Indian Malla-yuddha.[140][141] The words pehlwani and kushti derive from the Persian terms pahlavani (heroic) and koshti (wrestling, lit. killing) respectively, meaning Heroic wrestling. A practitioner of this sport is referred to as a pehlwan (Persian word for hero) while teachers are known as ustad (Persian word for teacher or master).[141]

Martial arts

This section is an excerpt from Indian martial arts.[edit]
Indian martial arts refers to the fighting systems of the Indian subcontinent. A variety of terms are used for the English phrases "Indian martial arts", deriving from ancient sources. While they may seem to imply specific disciplines (e.g. archery, armed combat), by Classical times they were used generically for all fighting systems.

Gatka

This section is an excerpt from Gatka.[edit]
Not to be confused with Shastar Vidya, the traditional battle system of northern India.
Gatka (Gurmukhi: ਗੱਤਕਾ; Shahmukhi: گَتّکا; Hindi: गतका; Urdu: گَتکا) is a form of martial art associated primarily with the Sikhs of the Punjab and other related ethnic groups, such as Hindkowans.[142][143] It is a style of stick-fighting, with wooden sticks intended to simulate swords.[144] The Punjabi name, gatka, refers to the wooden stick used and this term might have originated as a diminutive of a Sanskrit word, gada, meaning "mace".[145]

Kalaripayattu

This section is an excerpt from Kalaripayattu.[edit]
Kalaripayattu (IPA: [kɐɭɐɾip:ɐjɐt:ɨ̆]; also known simply as Kalari) is an Indian martial art that originated in Kerala, a state on the southwestern coast of India during the 11th–12th century CE.

Silambam

This section is an excerpt from Silambam.[edit]
Silambam is an Indian martial art originating in Tamil Nadu, South India in the Indian subcontinent. This style is mentioned in Tamil Sangam literature. The World Silambam Association is the official international body of Silambam.

Board games

Indian board games have a long history, and have been found etched into the floors and surfaces of ancient temples throughout the country.[146][147][148]

Carrom

The carrom board. Each of the four players must strike from between the two lines on their side of the board.

Carrom is played on a small board, with gameplay similar to pool and billiards (cue sports). The main unique feature of carrom is that players flick a puck-like object with their fingers in order to impact the other pieces on the board, with each of the four players having two designated lines on their side of the board between which they must flick/shoot their striking piece from.[149]

Chaturanga

This section is an excerpt from Chaturanga.[edit]
Chaturanga (Sanskrit: चतुरंग:; caturaṅga pronounced “chuh-toor-anga”) is an ancient Indian strategy board game. It is first known from India around the seventh century CE,[150] but its roots may date 5000 years back, to the Indus Valley Civilization.[151]

Pachisi

This section is an excerpt from Pachisi.[edit]

Pachisi (/pəˈtʃiːzi/, Hindustani: [pəˈtʃiːsiː]) is a cross and circle board game that originated in Ancient India. It is described in the ancient text Mahabharata under the name of "Pasha".[152] It is played on a board shaped like a symmetrical cross. A player's pieces move around the board based upon a throw of six or seven cowrie shells, with the number of shells resting with the aperture upward indicating the number of spaces to move.

In addition to chaupar,[153] there are many versions of the game. Barjis (barsis) is popular in the Levant, mainly Syria, while Parchís is another version popular in Spain and northern Morocco.[154] Parqués is its Colombian variant. Parcheesi, Sorry!, and Ludo are among the many Westernised commercial versions of the game. The Jeu des petits chevaux (Game of Little Horses) is played in France, and Mensch ärgere Dich nicht is a popular German variant. It is also possible that this game led to the development of the Korean board game Yunnori, through the ancient kingdom Baekje.

Lambs and tigers

This section is an excerpt from Lambs and tigers.[edit]
Three variations of empty grids on which this game can be played

The lambs and tigers game locally referred as the game of goats and tigers (Tamil: Āḍu-puli āṭṭam,

Telugu: Mē̃ka-puli āṭa, Kannada: Āḍu-huli āṭa) or Telugu: Pulijūdam, is a strategic, two-player (or 2 teams) leopard hunt game that is played in south India. The game is asymmetric in that one player controls three tigers and the other player controls up to 15 lambs/goats. The tigers 'hunt' the goats while the goats attempt to block the tigers' movements.[155]

Snakes and ladders

This section is an excerpt from Snakes and ladders.[edit]
Snakes and ladders is a board game for two or more players regarded today as a worldwide classic. The game originated in ancient India as Moksha Patam, and was brought to the United Kingdom in the 1890s. It is played on a game board with numbered, gridded squares. A number of "ladders" and "snakes" are pictured on the board, each connecting two specific board squares. The object of the game is to navigate one's game piece, according to die rolls, from the start (bottom square) to the finish (top square), helped by climbing ladders but hindered by falling down snakes.

Snooker

This section is an excerpt from Snooker.[edit]
Four-time world champion Mark Selby playing at a practice table during the 2012 Masters tournament
Snooker (pronounced UK: /ˈsnuːkər/ SNOO-kər, US: /ˈsnʊkər/ SNUUK-ər)[156][157] is a cue sport played on a rectangular billiards table covered with a green cloth called baize, with six pockets, one at each corner and one in the middle of each long side. First played by British Army officers stationed in India in the second half of the 19th century, the game is played with twenty-two balls, comprising a white cue ball, fifteen red balls, and six other balls—a yellow, green, brown, blue, pink, and black—collectively called the colours. Using a cue stick, the individual players or teams take turns to strike the cue ball to pot other balls in a predefined sequence, accumulating points for each successful pot and for each time the opposing player or team commits a foul. An individual frame of snooker is won by the player who has scored the most points. A snooker match ends when a player reaches a predetermined number of frames.

Pallanguzhi

This section is an excerpt from Pallanguzhi.[edit]
A fish shaped pallankuli board
Pallanguli,[158] or Pallankuli[159][160] (Tamil: பல்லாங்குழி, romanized: Pallāṅkuḻi, Malayalam: പല്ലാങ്കുഴി, romanized: Pallāṅkuḻi, Kannada: ಅಳಗುಳಿ ಮನೆ, romanized: Alaguli Mane, Telugu: వామన గుంటలు, romanized: Vamana guntalu, Marathi: सत्कोलि, romanized: Satkoli),[161] is a traditional ancient mancala game played in South India, especially Tamil Nadu and Kerala. This game was later introduced to Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh in India, as well as Sri Lanka and Malaysia. The game is played by two players, with a wooden board that has fourteen pits in all (hence, it is also called fourteen pits, or pathinālam kuḻi. There have been several variations in the layout of the pits, one among them being seven pits on each player's side. The pits contain cowry shells, seeds or small pebbles used as counters.[162] There are several variations of the game depending on the number of shells each player starts with.[163]

Card games

Ganjifa

This section is an excerpt from Ganjifa.[edit]
Ganjifa, Ganjapa or Gânjaphâ,[164] is a card game and type of playing cards that are most associated with Persia and India. After Ganjifa cards fell out of use in Iran before the twentieth century, India became the last country to produce them.[165] The form prevalent in Odisha is Ganjapa.

Boat racing

Vallam kali

This section is an excerpt from Vallam kali.[edit]
Aranmula Boat in Uthrattathi Boat Race
Vallam kali (vaḷḷaṃ kaḷi, literally: boat game), also known as snake boat race, is a traditional boat race in Kerala, India. It is a form of canoe racing, and uses paddled war canoes. It is mainly conducted during the season of the harvest festival Onam in spring. Vallam kali includes races of many kinds of paddled longboats and 'snake boats'. Each team spends about ₹6 lakhs for the Nehru Trophy Boat Race.[166]

Hiyang Tannaba

This section is an excerpt from Hiyang Tannaba.[edit]
Hiyang Tannaba (Meitei: ꯍꯤꯌꯥꯡ ꯇꯥꯟꯅꯕ, lit. 'boat race')[167] is a traditional boat race ceremony performed in Manipur, India as a part of the religious festival of Lai Haraoba.[168][169] It is generally organized in the month of November at many places including Thangapat (moat).[167][168] The boats called Hiyang Hiren are regarded as invested with spiritual powers and the game is associated with religious rites.[167][170] The Meiteis believe that the worship of the Hiyang Hiren will bring protection from evil spirits.[167]

Physical exercises

Dand

This section is an excerpt from Push-up § Hindu push-up.[edit]
The Hindu push-up, also known as a dand. This is the most basic version, similar to that used by Bruce Lee who referred to it as a cat stretch.
The most basic form of Hindu push-up starts from the downward dog yoga position (hands and feet on the floor with the posterior raised) and transitions to an upward dog position (hands and feet on the floor with the torso arched forwards and the legs close to the floor). It is also known as a dand, and is still widely known by this title especially in India where it originated from. It is a common exercise in Indian physical culture and martial arts, particularly Pehlwani.[171][172] The famous martial artist Bruce Lee also used it in his training regime and referred to it as a cat stretch.[173] It is an effective core strength exercise because it dynamically involves both the anterior and posterior chains in a harmonious fashion. There are numerous variations of the Hindu push-up although most incorporate the two postures used in the most basic version. It may also be known as a Hanuman push up, judo push up, or dive-bomber push-up.

Baithak

A baithak, also known as a Hindu squat or a deep knee bend on toes, is performed without additional weight, and body weight placed on the forefeet and toes with the heels raised throughout; during the movement the knees track far past the toes. The baithak was a staple exercise of ancient Indian wrestlers. It was also used by Bruce Lee in his training regime.[174] It may also be performed with the hands resting on an upturned club or the back of a chair.

Gada

This section is an excerpt from Gada (mace) § Exercise equipment.[edit]
The gada is one of the traditional pieces of training equipment in Hindu physical culture, and is common in the akhara of north India. Maces of various weights and heights are used depending on the strength and skill level of the practitioner. It is believed that Lord Hanuman's gada was the largest amongst all the gadas in the world. For training purposes, one or two wooden gada (mudgar) are swung behind the back in several different ways and is particularly useful for building grip strength and shoulder endurance. The Great Gama was known for extensive use of gada. Winners in a kushti contest are often awarded with a gada.

Other physical activities

Yoga

This section is an excerpt from Yoga.[edit]
Yoga (/ˈjoʊɡə/ ⓘ; pronounced [joːɡɐ]) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciousness untouched by the mind (Chitta) and mundane suffering (Duḥkha). There is a wide variety of schools of yoga, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and traditional and modern yoga is practiced worldwide.

Mallakhamba

This section is an excerpt from Mallakhamba.[edit]
A mallakhamba team performs on the pole, 2015

Mallakhamba, or mallakhamb is a traditional sport, originating from the Indian subcontinent, in which a group of gymnasts perform aerial yoga and gymnastic postures using wrestling grips in concert with a stationary vertical pole. The word "mallakhamb" also refers to the pole used in the sport.[175] The pole is usually made from sheesham (Indian rosewood) polished with castor oil.[176] Other popular versions of mallakhamba are practiced using a cane or a rope instead of a pole.[177] The origins of pole dancing can be traced back to the sport of mallakhamba.[178]

The name mallakhamba derives from the terms malla, meaning wrestler, and khamb, which means a pole. Literally meaning "wrestling pole", the term refers to a traditional training implement used by wrestlers.[179]

Kite-flying

This section is an excerpt from Fighter kite § India.[edit]
Fighter kites are known as patang in India.[180][181] In many others, kite flying takes place mainly during specific festivals particularly the spring festival known as Basant, during Makar Sankranti and more recently on Indian Independence Day.[182]

Events involving animals

A Kambala participant driving his two bulls forward.

Kambala

Kambala involves one person racing a pair of bulls across a paddy field.[183]

Jallikattu

This section is an excerpt from Jallikattu.[edit]


Jallikattu (or sallikkattu), also known as ēru taḻuvuṭal and mañcuvirattu,[184] is a traditional event in which a bull (Bos indicus), such as the Pulikulam[185] or Kangayam breeds,[186] is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape. Participants hold the hump for as long as possible, attempting to bring the bull to a stop. In some cases, participants must ride long enough to remove flags on the bull's horns.[187][188]

Jallikattu is typically practised in some regions of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu (peculiarly in Southern and Western Tamil Nadu) as a part of Pongal celebrations on Mattu Pongal day, which occurs annually in January.

Polo

This section is an excerpt from Polo.[edit]
Players playing polo
Polo is a ball game that is played on horseback, a traditional field sport and one of the world's oldest known team sports.[189] The game is played by two opposing teams with the objective of scoring using a long-handled wooden mallet to hit a small hard ball through the opposing team's goal. Each team has four mounted riders, and the game usually lasts one to two hours, divided into periods called chukkas or chukkers.

Miscellaneous games

Antakshari

This section is an excerpt from Antakshari.[edit]
Antakshari, also known as Antyakshari (अंताक्षरी transl. The game of the ending letter) is a spoken parlor game played in India.[190] Each contestant sings the first verse of a song (often Classical Hindustani or Bollywood songs) that begins with the consonant of Hindi alphabet on which the previous contestant's song ended.

Raja Mantri Chor Sipahi

This section is an excerpt from Raja Chor Mantri Sipahi.[edit]
Shuffled chits
Raja Mantri Chor Sipahi (transl.  King, Minister, thief and soldier) is a type of role-playing game that is a popular pastime in India. It involves four players—each player takes up the role of either the king, Minister, thief or soldier— and the Minister (Mantri) has to guess the identity of the thief. Along with other such games, its popularity has decreased in the 21st century.[191]

Toys

Bhatukali

Bhatukali involves children playing with a mock set of kitchen items, with the intention of being taught how to do kitchen-related work.[192][193][194] Bhatukali dates back to ancient times, as evidenced by its presence in literary works such as the Dnyaneshwari and Kama Sutra.[195]

Dug dugi

Dug dugi is a type of rattle for children to play with. A dug dugi has a core with strings on either side attached to small stone-like objects; once the dug dugi is shaken, the stones hit the core from either side to make sound.[195][196][197]

Gulel

Children often play with a slingshot ('gulel' in Hindi), which traditionally was also used for hunting purposes.[195]

Pambaram

This section is an excerpt from Pambaram.[edit]
Pambaram (Tamil: பம்பரம், Malayalam: പമ്പരം), also called the Lattu (Urdu: لٹو), , Latim (Bengali: লাটিম), Bhawra (Marathi: भावरा), Buguri (Kannada: ಬುಗುರಿ), or Bongaram (Telugu: బొంగరం), is a traditional throwing top used mainly in India and Bangladesh.[198]

Regional games

Yubi lakpi

This section is an excerpt from Yubi lakpi.[edit]

Yubi lakpi is a seven-a-side traditional football game played in Manipur, India, using a coconut, which has some notable similarities to rugby. Despite these similarities, the name is not related to the game of rugby or Rugby School in England, it is in fact of Meitei-Pangal origin, and means literally "coconut snatching".[199] Emma Levine, an English writer on little known Asian sports, speculates:

"Perhaps this was the root of modern rugby? Most Manipuris are quite adamant that the modern world 'stole' the idea from them and made it into rugby... this game, which has been around for centuries, is so similar to rugby, which evolved a great deal later, that it must be more than a coincidence."[200]

Dhopkhel

This section is an excerpt from Dhopkhel.[edit]
Dhopkhel is played by both indigenous Assamese men and women
Dhopkhel, also transliterated dhop khel and dhoop khel (Assamese: ঢোপখেল), is a traditional ball game played in the Indian state of Assam. The game is played between two teams of 11 on a 125 m × 80 m field bounded by four flags. The players take turns throwing the ball at the opponent to knock them out of the game, while seeking to catch the ball and avoid being tagged by other players. It is a test of speed, stamina, and acrobatic skills.[201]

See also

  • History of India
  • List of Indian inventions and discoveries
  • Traditional games of Bangladesh
  • Traditional games of Pakistan
  • Traditional games of Andhra Pradesh

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