Trioecy, tridioecy or subdioecy, is a sexual system characterized by the coexistence of males, females, and hermaphrodites. It has been found in both plants and animals.[1][2] Trioecy, androdioecy and gynodioecy may be described as mixed mating systems.[3]

Evolution of trioecy

Trioecy may be an unstable transient state[4] associated with evolutionary transitioning from gynodioecy to dioecy.[5][4] In brachiopod species, trioecy usually breaks into androdioecy or gynodioecy.[6] Other studies show that trioecious populations originated from gonochoristic ancestors which were invaded by a mutant selfing hermaphrodite, creating a trioecious population.[1] It has been suggested that chromosomal duplication plays an important part in the evolution of trioecy.[7]

But one study found that trioecy can be stable under nucleocytoplasmic sex determination.[8] Another theoretical analysis indicates that trioecy could be evolutionary stable in plant species if a large amount of pollinators vary geographically.[9]

Occurrence

Trioecy is a relatively common sexual system in plants,[10] estimated to occur in about 3.6% of flowering plant species,[8] although most reports of trioecy could be misinterpretations of gynodioecy.[11] It is rare as well as poorly understood in animals.[10]

Species that exhibit trioecy

The following species have been observed to exhibit a trioecious breeding system.

Plants

Animals

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 Chaudhuri, Jyotiska; Bose, Neelanjan; Tandonnet, Sophie; Adams, Sally; Zuco, Giusy; Kache, Vikas; Parihar, Manish; von Reuss, Stephan H.; Schroeder, Frank C.; Pires-daSilva, Andre (December 3, 2015). "Mating dynamics in a nematode with three sexes and its evolutionary implications". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 17676. Bibcode:2015NatSR...517676C. doi:10.1038/srep17676. PMC 4668576. PMID 26631423.
  2. ↑ Choe, Jae (2019-01-21). "Hermaphrodite Mating Systems". In Leonard, Janet (ed.). Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior. Vol. 4. Academic Press. pp. 584–589. ISBN 978-0-12-813252-4.
  3. 1 2 3 Fusco, Giuseppe; Minelli, Alessandro (2019-10-10). The Biology of Reproduction. Cambridge University Press. pp. 134–135. ISBN 978-1-108-49985-9.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Kanzaki, Natsumi; Kiontke, Karin; Tanaka, Ryusei; Hirooka, Yuuri; Schwarz, Anna; Müller-Reichert, Thomas; Chaudhuri, Jyotiska; Pires-daSilva, Andre (2017-09-11). "Description of two three-gendered nematode species in the new genus Auanema (Rhabditina) that are models for reproductive mode evolution". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 11135. Bibcode:2017NatSR...711135K. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-09871-1. PMC 5593846. PMID 28894108.
  5. ↑ Kliman, Richard (2016). Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Vol. 2. Academic Press. p. 476. ISBN 978-0-12-800426-5. Archived from the original on July 1, 2016.
  6. ↑ Subramoniam, Thanumalaya (2016-09-27). Sexual Biology and Reproduction in Crustaceans. Academic Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-12-809606-2.
  7. ↑ Fleming, Theodore H.; Valiente-Banuet, Alfonso (2002). Columnar Cacti and Their Mutualists: Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation. University of Arizona Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-8165-2204-0.
  8. 1 2 Albert, Béatrice; Morand-Prieur, Marie-Élise; Brachet, Stéphanie; Gouyon, Pierre-Henri; Frascaria-Lacoste, Nathalie; Raquin, Christian (2013-10-01). "Sex expression and reproductive biology in a tree species, Fraxinus excelsior L". Comptes Rendus Biologies. 336 (10): 479–485. doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2013.08.004. ISSN 1631-0691. PMID 24246889.
  9. ↑ Fleming, Theodore H.; Valiente-Banuet, Alfonso (2002). Columnar Cacti and Their Mutualists: Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation. University of Arizona Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-8165-2204-0.
  10. 1 2 3 Oyarzún P, Nuñez J, Toro JE, Gardner J (2020). "Trioecy in the Marine Mussel Semimytilus algosus (Mollusca, Bivalvia): Stable Sex Ratios Across 22 Degrees of a Latitudinal Gradient". Frontiers in Marine Science. 7 (348): 1–10. doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.00348.
  11. ↑ Geber, Monica A.; Dawson, Todd E.; Delph, Lynda F. (2012-12-06). Gender and Sexual Dimorphism in Flowering Plants. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 74. ISBN 978-3-662-03908-3.
  12. ↑ Silva, C. A.; Oliva, M.; Vieira, M. F.; Fernandes, G. W. (October 27, 2008). "Trioecy in Coccoloba cereifera Schwacke (Polygonaceae), a narrow endemic and threatened tropical species". Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 51 (5): 1003–1010. doi:10.1590/S1516-89132008000500017. S2CID 85673074.
  13. ↑ Joseph KS, Murthy HN (2015). "Sexual system of Garcinia indica Choisy: geographic variation in trioecy and sexual dimorphism in floral traits". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 301 (3): 1065–1071. doi:10.1007/s00606-014-1120-y. S2CID 15926083.
  14. ↑ Husaini, Amjad M.; Neri, Davide (2016). Strawberry: growth, development and diseases. Boston, MA: CAB International.
  15. ↑ Godley, E. J. (1955). "Breeding Systems in New Zealand Plants: I. Fuchsia." Annals of botany, 19(4), 549-559.
  16. ↑ Perry, Laura E.; Pannell, John R.; Dorken, Marcel E. (2012-04-19). "Two's Company, Three's a Crowd: Experimental Evaluation of the Evolutionary Maintenance of Trioecy in Mercurialis annua (Euphorbiaceae)". PLOS ONE. 7 (4): e35597. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...735597P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035597. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3330815. PMID 22532862.
  17. 1 2 Avise, John C. (2011-03-18). Hermaphroditism: A Primer on the Biology, Ecology, and Evolution of Dual Sexuality. Columbia University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-231-52715-6.
  18. ↑ Fleming, Theodore H. (September 2000). "Pollination of Cacti in the Sonoran Desert: When closely related species vie for scarce resources, necessity is the mother of some pretty unusual evolutionary inventions". American Scientist. 88 (5): 432–439. doi:10.1511/2000.5.432. JSTOR 27858091. S2CID 122244912.
  19. ↑ Roy, Scott (1 November 2021). "Digest: Three sexes from two loci in one genome: A haploid alga expands the diversity of trioecious species". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 2023-05-12.
  20. ↑ Armoza-Zvuloni, Rachel; Kramarsky-Winter, Esti; Loya, Yossi; Schlesinger, Ami; Rosenfeld, Hanna (2014-06-01). "Trioecy, a Unique Breeding Strategy in the Sea Anemone Aiptasia diaphana and Its Association with Sex Steroids". Biology of Reproduction. 90 (6): 122. doi:10.1095/biolreprod.113.114116. ISSN 0006-3363. PMID 24790160.
  21. ↑ Leonard, Janet L. (2013-10-01). "Williams' Paradox and the Role of Phenotypic Plasticity in Sexual Systems". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 53 (4): 671–688. doi:10.1093/icb/ict088. ISSN 1540-7063. PMID 23970358.
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