Indigenous peoples

Bufa Hill (Spanish: Cerro de la Bufa), viewpoint of the Zacatecos

The first people to populate the area arrived approximately 10,000 years ago, when the climate was wetter and warmer, with different vegetation and wildlife. Eventually, the area came to be dominated by Chichimeca tribes such as the Caxcans, Guachichils, Guamares, Huichols, Zacatecos and others, with the Zacatecos being the most numerous in the area of the city today.^[2][4] These peoples were mining silver and other metals in the hills long before the Europeans arrived,^[5] making the area important in pre-Columbian times.^[1]

Colonial period

The Spanish came to the Zacatecas area via Guadalajara. In 1540, Nuño de Guzmán traveled from Mexico City conquering what are now the states of Michoacán and Jalisco. One of Guzmán's lieutenants, Cristóbal de Oñate, conquered the area around what is now Guadalajara. Another, Pedro Almindes Chirinos Peralmindes, went to explore the lands to the north, taking Zacatecas with little trouble but not knowing of the riches underneath the soil. And the area initially was simply frontier. Other expeditions followed, including one by Juan de Tolosa in 1546, who brought back rock samples from Cerro de la Bufa, which were determined to contain high concentrations of silver and lead.^[6] A mining camp was soon established at the foot of Cerro de la Bufa.^[2] The Zacatecos initially fought the permanent presence of the Spanish, but the mining potential of the area strengthened the Europeans’ resolve and the natives were defeated in the 1540s.^[7] Surveys of the other surrounding hills were undertaken by Tolosa, Diego de Ibarra, Baltasar Temiño de Bañuelos, Andrés de Villanueva and others.^[2]

El Edén Mine

A military mining camp was formally established in 1548 and called Minas de Nuestra Señora de Remedios.^[4][8] The first major vein of silver was found in 1548 in a mine called San Bernabé. This was followed by similar finds in mines called Albarrada de San Benito, Vetagrande, Pánuco and others. This brought a large number of people to Zacatecas, including craftsmen, merchants, clerics and adventurers.^[4] In 1550, royalty found its way to Zacatecas in the person of Leonor Cortés Moctezuma, the illegitimate daughter of conquistador Hernán Cortés and Isabel Moctezuma, daughter of the Aztec emperor. Doña Leonor married Juan de Tolosa. The settlement grew over the space of a few years into one of the most important cities in New Spain and the most populous after Mexico City. The camp became a parish in 1550,^[2] in 1585, then it was declared a city with the name of "Muy Noble y Leal Ciudad de Nuestra Señora de Zacatecas" (Very Noble and Loyal City of Our Lady of Zacatecas), receiving its coat of arms from Philip II of Spain at the same time.^[2] The success of the mines led to the arrival of indigenous people and the importation of black slaves to work in them. The mining camp spread southwards along the course of the Arroyo de la Plata, which now lies underneath Hidalgo Avenue, the old town's main road. Tall buildings were constructed along here due to the lack of flat area on which to build. The first house was supposedly built in 1547, just before the fortress and metal foundry. Hospitals and hospices were built in the 1550s.^[6]

Former city mint

Zacatecas was one of the richest states in Mexico. One of the most important mines from the colonial period is the El Edén mine. It began operations in 1586 in the Cerro de la Bufa. It principally produced gold and silver with most of its production occurring in the 17th and 18th centuries. Today, the opening of this mine is within the city limits and was closed to mining in 1960. It was reopened as a tourist attraction in 1975.^[9] By the end of the 16th century, the city was the second most important, after Mexico City, and the income its mines produced for the Spanish Crown made it one of the most powerful in Europe.^[1][8] Its importance was not only due to mining. Most of the monastic orders in New Spain eventually established monasteries, making Zacatecas an important center for evangelization. The Franciscans arrived in 1558, the Augustinians in 1576 and the Dominicans in 1604.^[2] Many of the missionary expeditions to what are now California and Texas came from this city.^[6]

Over the rest of the colonial period, the riches from the ground financed the building of important religious and secular constructions. The peak of this construction occurred in the 18th century. One of these constructions is the Colegio de San Luis Gonzaga, which was established in 1796.^[2]

Mexican War of Independence

Ignacio López Rayón led a group of Mexican rebels capturing the city of Zacatecas on April 15, 1811, early in the fight for Mexican independence from Spain. Víctor Rosales and José María Cos were leaders of Hidalgo's rebellion. Shortly after Independence, the Mexican government established the city of Zacatecas as the capital of the newly formed state of Zacatecas.

19th century

Interior of Zacatecas, painting of 1836 by Carl Nebel.^[10]

In the mid-1820s, institutions such as the first opera house, first teachers’ college, the state treasury, the state supreme court and other institutions were founded in the city when the first state constitution was signed. The first newspaper in the state started circulation herein 1825. The municipality was established in 1825.^[2]

From the end of the War of Independence until nearly the end of the 19th century, liberals or federalists and conservatives, who favored centralized rule from Mexico City, battled for control of Zacatecas. In 1835, then-liberal Antonio López de Santa Anna defeated the troops of Francisco Garcia Salinas. During the Reform War, the city was taken by conservative general Miguel Miramón.^[2]

The first railroad connecting Zacatecas with Guadalupe was completed in 1880. Connections with Mexico City and El Paso by rail were established in 1884.^[2]

Mexican Revolution

During the Mexican Revolution, Zacatecas was the scene of the Battle of Zacatecas in 1914, pitting the rebel forces of Francisco Villa against the government forces of Victoriano Huerta.^[2] Zacatecas was the last stronghold of the Huerta forces, which the División del Norte arrived on June 19, 1914, from Torreón.

Painting of the Toma de Zacatecas, Chapultepec Castle, Mexico City

Taking the city would clear the way for Villa to proceed to Mexico City. Villa's forces were under the direct command of General Felipe Ángeles, and Huerta's forces were under the command of General Luis Medina Barrón. From the 19th to the 23rd, General Medina used a light beacon brought from the port city of Veracruz to light the hills at night looking for rebel positions. The battle began at 10:00 a.m. on the 23rd with rebel cannon fire. Over 22,000 rebel troops then approached the city from four directions, from the mountains known as La Bufa, La Sierpe, Loreto and La Tierra Negra. The battle continued until about 5:00 that afternoon, when Huerta's troops began to abandon their positions, and the División del Norte took the strategic hills of La Bufa and El Grillo, entering the city. The rebels sacked the city and destroyed a number of buildings. Battle casualties were about 5,000 for Huerta's troops and about 3,000 for the rebels.^[11] After the Mexican Revolution, the city of Zacatecas decided to revive the original seal granted to it by Philip II, and make it the seal of both the city and the state. It had been discarded after the War of Independence. The "Marcha Aréchiga" or "Marcha Zacatecas" written by Genaro Codina in the early 20th century, became the semi official anthem of the city and state.^[2]

20th century

The old Instituto de Ciencias was refounded as the Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas in 1968, and an international airport was constructed in 1970.^[2]

The anniversary of the city had been celebrated on the day of the Virgin of Zapopan, who was the patron until 1975. Since then the patron has been changed to the Virgin del Patrocinio, who is celebrated on the same day,.^[12]

The former Plaza de Toros with El Cubo aqueduct in the background. The bullring was repurposed into an hotel in 1989.^[13]

The city center was named a World Heritage Site in 1993.^[2] UNESCO's websites states the following as justification. "Founded in 1546 after the discovery of a rich silver lode, Zacatecas reached the height of its prosperity in the 16th and 17th centuries. Built on the steep slopes of a narrow valley, the town has views of the area. There are also several old buildings, both religious and civil. The cathedral, built between 1730 and 1760, dominates downtown. It is notable for its harmonious design and the Baroque profusion of its façades, where European and indigenous decorative elements are found side by side."^[14]

Zacatecas has had a number of earthquakes since the colonial period. The last occurred in 1995 and caused minor damage.^[2]

21st century

In 2009, the city council approved the logotype of the new administration with includes the Virgin of Zacatecas image. However, since then it has been claimed that the new logo violates Article 5 of the Zacatecas constitution and Article 10 of a law called Bando de Policía y Buen Gobierno. Another objection is that the new seal contains the colors yellow and black, those of the political party of the municipal president.^[15] The city has grown to the point where houses now balance on the edge of a creek and over the mounds of waste from mines. This is possible due to the lack of regulation and urban planning by authorities. Irregularities exist in 85% of the city's neighborhoods but the neighborhoods of Lázaro Cárdenas, Minera, CNOP, Lomas de la Pimienta, Benito Juárez, González Ortega have the largest number of them. Many of these buildings have structural and infrastructure problems such as flooding during rains and the damage this creates.^[16]

Historic sites and attractions

Equestrian statue of Pánfilo Natera at Cerro de la Bufa

The Cerro de la Bufa, with its El Edén mine, is one of the most important symbols of the city and was the scene of the Battle of Zacatecas (called the Toma de Zacatecas in Spanish) in which Francisco Villa emerged victorious in 1914. At the top of this mountain is a museum and statues honoring Pánfilo Natera, Francisco Villa and Felipe Ángeles, which are related to this event. The site also contains an observatory, the Mausoleo de los Hombres Ilustres and the Chapel of Virgen del Patrocinio.^[8]

Equestrian statue of Pancho Villa, atop Cerro de la Bufa, site of his greatest victory

The El Edén mine began operations in 1586 and principally produced gold and silver.^[9] According to legend the devil is supposed to be found in this parts due to the sound made when the wind whistles around the rocks.^[19] While operations began in the 16th century, its peak was reached in the 17th and 18th centuries.^[9] Despite the fact that there is still a significant amount of minerals left to extract, mining operations ceased in 1960, because the entrance is located in the middle of the city making this too hazardous.^[4][9] In 1975, the mine was converted into a tourist attraction.^[9] Today, visitors can take a small train which leads into the mountain for about a half a kilometer, then walk with a guide along some of the narrow passages. One of the things to see is an altar to the Santo Niño de Atocha.^[5][20] At night, the former rock crushing room of the mine has been converted into a nightclub.^[5][18]

The Toma de Zacatecas Museum is located on Cerro de la Bufa, which played at part in the Battle of Zacatecas during the Mexican Revolution. The museum was opened in 1984 and contains many articles from this battle as well as some from the Cristero War. Inside are clothing and uniforms, arms such as shotguns, mousers and cannons, historic maps of Zacatecas and newspaper and photographs from the era. Photographs include those of Juana Gallo, who was a heroine of the Cristero War. Some battles from this conflict also took place on Cerro de la Bufa.^[8][21] The museum is fronted by the Plaza de la Revolución, which contains statues of Francisco Villa and two other generals who successfully led the attack on the city. The building housing the museum was originally the Casa de la Caridad y Hospital de Pobres.^[18] Next to the museum is the Chapel of Nuestra Señora del Patrocinio, an old hermitage from the 16th century. Its façade is Baroque with two levels. The Observatorio Meteorológico is mostly used to observe weather phenomenon.^[18]

Between Cerro de la Bufa and Cerro del Grillo is an aerial tramway or cable car that provides panoramic views of the city below. This cable car extends for about 650 meters, is called "El Teleférico" and was constructed in 1979 by the Swiss. The ride lasts about eight minutes, but does not operate when there are high winds.^{[5][18][20][22]}

Cathedral

The cathedral was built between 1729 and 1753, regarded by many as the last, and greatest, expression of the churrigueresque style.

In the city proper just south of the main plaza, is the cathedral, which is located over the ruins of pre-Hispanic temples. The current structure dates from 1752 and has a façade of sculpted pink stone. The best time to appreciate the façade is in the late afternoon when the sun shines directly on it.^[9] This church is considered to be one of the best examples of Mexican Churrigueresque architecture.^[23] The first parish church was built on this site between 1567 and 1585, but it was in ruins by the beginning of the 17th century. A second church was built between 1612 and 1625 and was called the Chapel of Santo Cristo.^[6][23] The remains of this construction can be seen in the first level of the south tower and the main façade.^[23] The current cathedral was begun in 1729 with main façade finished in 1745 but not opened to worship until 1752.^[18]

The cathedral is attributed to Domingo Ximénez Hernández and is a testament to the wealth that the city had in the 18th century.^[7] Later on, additions were made. The dome was rebuilt in 1848 and the south tower was completed in 1904, by Dámaso Muñetón. The 19th-century dome is an imitation of the dome of the Church of Loreto in Mexico City. The church achieved cathedral status in 1862, and was declared a national monument in 1935. In 1965, the building was robbed of many of its precious metal items, which were never recovered.^[6][23]

The cathedral is eighty-five meters high and entirely constructed of pink sandstone.^[17][23] It has three naves with three main portals. The main façade has three levels supported by three Solomonic columns with flank niches. At the crest is a cross. The first level has three columns decorated with vines and angels. In its niches are statues of the Four Evangelists. The second level has columns formed by shells, acanthus and vines. The choir window is found here framed by stonework. The third level has an image of Christ with two of the Apostles flanked by solomonic columns decorated with leaves, caryatids and cherubs. The plaza side portal has two levels with stone columns and a sculpted scene of the crucified Christ with the Virgin Mary and John the Evangelist. The market side portal is Baroque and is dedicated to the Virgen del Patrocinio, patron of the city. The interior has a Latin cross layout with two naves and with the roof supported by Doric order columns. The altarpieces are made of stone in Neoclassical style.^[23] The main altar is dedicated to the Eucharist with side altars dedicated to the Holy Christ and the Virgin of Zacatecas.^[9] The American author Mrs. John Wesley Butler, in her book "Historic Churches in Mexico" tells us that the artist who designed the façade was French. This individual, condemned to death for some grave problem was able to get the execution postponed until he finished his work on the cathedral. He was able to continue the work for twenty-one years, being watched constantly by custodians and sentries while he worked. Finally bored with such a life, he declared one day that he was ready to be executed. But because of his work on the Cathedral façade he was not executed but received a pardon. The neighborhood showered him with gifts and banquets in his honor. Yet he was not content and desired to return to France. Unfortunately when all was ready for his departure he suddenly died. Where Mrs. Butler got this story is not known, since longtime residents of Zacatecas disclaim all knowledge of it.^[24]

Buildings and Plaza de Armas

Hidalgo Avenue and Rosales Arcade in the bottom

The main square is called the Plaza de Armas, with the most important buildings such as the State Government Palace, the State Congress, the cathedral and others surrounding it.^[1] What is now the State Government Palace was constructed at the beginning of the 18th century as the residence of the Count de la Laguna.^[1][18] The exterior is marked by its red roof,^[17] and the interior has a courtyard surrounded by arches and a stairwell with a mural depicting the history of the state. This mural was painted in 1970 by Antonio Pintor Rodríguez.^[18]

One of the mansions that line the main plaza is called the "Palacio de la Mala Noche", which belonged to a miner named José Manuel de Rétegui in the 18th century. The name comes from a legend that states that the owner fell into poverty and one night decided to commit suicide. When he was at the point to doing so, he was informed that a rich vein had been found in one of his mines. Its façade has balconies and windows elaborated in sandstone. The main balcony is a half octagon. Today it houses the state supreme court.^[4][18] Another prominent mansion is the old house of González Ortega, which stands next to the cathedral and today is part of the governor's mansion.^[6]

Market

The Mercado Jesús González Ortega second floor. The public market was constructed during the Porfiriato.

On the other side of the cathedral is the González Ortega Market, which was constructed in 1889 and still conserves its original façade. Originally, it was a traditional Mexican style market but has since been modernized into a mall with stores selling crafts, silver, leather, Zacatecas wine, antiques, charreada gear, Huichol needlework and regional sweets.^[18][20] There are also restaurants which offer regional dishes such as gorditas, asado de boda, pozole verde, pacholes, gorditas rellenas and enchiladas zacatecanas, filled with pork or cheese and covered in a sauce made with poblano, guajillo or ancho chili peppers.^[12][19] The interior of the building has two floors with wrought iron columns and the façade is French style fronted by the Plazoleta Goitia.^[18] Another market for crafts is the Casa de Artesanias in front of the Temple of San Agustín, which sells wool serapes, masks, Huichol figures, wood boxes, ceramics and more.^[18]

Churches

Temple of Santo Domingo

The former Temple of San Francisco was founded in 1568 as first monastery in Zacatecas, the monastery of Our Lady of Guadalupe, with the primary function of evangelization.^[20] It was inaugurated on January 12, 1707, but some parts of the buildings (such as the south tower) were not really completed until the 19th century.^[6] Today the monastery complex houses a museum but the church is in ruins.^[6] The vault of the central nave has fallen and many of its rooms and corridors are in ruins.^[20]

The church of St. Agustine (ex-templo de San Agustín) was built by the religious order of San Agustín which arrived in the City of Zacatecas in 1575; was consecrated in 1617 and was refurbished and re-consecrated in 1782. The building has been attributed to Andres Manuel de la Riva, who built La Valenciana Church and monastery in Guanajuato. After the Reform Laws, the complex was sold to private buyers who turned it into a pool hall and hotel or apartments. In 1882, it was sold again, this time to the American Presbyterian Society, which demolished the main façade because it did not represent the concepts of that society. The Catholic Church regained possession in 1942 and it is now the Bishop's palace.^[6] Reconstruction efforts began in 1948 and continued sporadically until 1969. Only part of the monastery complex survives and is home to the Rafael Coronel Museum.^[4][18] The right side façade of the church remains, worked in sculpted stone, with the scene of St. Agustine being converted to Christianity.^[4] Inside, the church has distinctive arches as well as a cupola and side portal. The sacristy contains some of the sculptures from the original main façade. It also contains a collection of colonial artwork and hosts exhibitions.^[20]

The Temple of Santo Domingo Jesuit church of Santo Domingo, built between 1746 and 1749 by Cayetano de Sigüenza.^[6] It is known locally as the Parish of the Inmaculada Concepción.^[20] The Church of Santo Domingo is built over a solid platform, which makes it look more monumental.^[4] It was taken over by the Dominicans when the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in the 18th century. It would substitute for the cathedral when it was in construction.^[6] It has a sober Baroque portal, with altarpieces and paintings in its interior. Attached to this church is the monastery building of the Company of Jesus, which contains the current Pedro Coronel Museum.^[4] Inside the church are eight Churrigueresque altars, which are carved of wood and gilded with gold mined from the Cerro del Grillo.^[17][20] However, the main altar is Neoclassical.^[20] The Churringueresque altars are attributed to Felipe de Ureña and his son-in-law, Juan García de Castañeda.^[6]

Theater

Calderón Theatre.

The Calderón Theater was built to replace a theater which had burned in the late 1880s (where the González Ortega Market is now). The theater has been in operation since then, having hosted famous performers such as Ángela Peralta.^[1][2] The building is built in a Renaissance revival style and has a hall with large mirrors made in Venice.^[22]

Other attractions

There are also a number of lesser known structures in the city. The first city park is the Alameda Trinidad García de la Cadena, which was built in the early 19th century. The Enrique Estrada General Park contains an enormous kiosk.^[18] The Meson de Jobito is a 19th-century building which is part of the garden dedicated to Benito Juárez.^[20] The former Bernárdez Hacienda now contains an artisans’ school which specializes in the making of silver items.^[8] Other mines that can be visited include La Esperanza, which extends 520 meters inside Cerro del Grillo.^[22] The Church of Nuestra Señora de Fátima is an example of the relatively rare Gothic architecture in Mexico.^[17] The Mauricio Magdaleno Public Library is in a 19th-century building which served as the granary. The façade contains an image of a winged Victory.^[18]

The former Plaza de Toros and El Cubo aqueduct are located on one side of the Cerro de la Bufa. The Plaza de Toros bullring was inaugurated in 1866 and conserves much of its original architecture.^[20] Events featuring bullfighters such as Lino Zamora, Epifanio del Rio, Eloy Cavazos, Manolo Martínez and Curro Rivera were held here. However, the plaza was eventually closed in 1975, and abandoned. After eleven years, it was almost demolished but it was instead rehabilitated and converted into a hotel and place to hold events. The Hotel Quinta Real was built by Mexicans Ricardo and Roberto Elías Pessah and contains 49 suites. The corridors maintain the bullring atmosphere as do the stores, restaurant and event halls.^[25] The El Cubo aqueduct was built at the end of the 18th century to carry water from the El Cubo mine area, which gave the structure its name. Only a few arches of it remain.^[18][20]

Universities and technical education

The city contains a number of universities and institutions of higher education, including the state-sponsored Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas ^[26]

The Universidad Tecnológica del Estado de Zacatecas (UTEZ) is part of a technological university system across the Mexico. It was founded in 1998 by the state government of Zacatecas focusing on majors in technology and business.^[27]

Other technical schools are the Instituto Tecnológico de Zacatecas,^[28] the Instituto Politécnico de Zacatecas,^[29] and a campus of the ITESM college system.^[30][31]

Geography

As municipal seat, the city of Zacatecas is the governmental authority for 180 other named localities,^[37] which total an area of 444 km² (171 sq mi).^[2] Ninety-three percent of the municipality's population of 132,035 lives in the city proper.^[37] There are no indigenous communities in the municipalities with almost all of the population being "mestizo" or mixed indigenous-European. Under 500 people speak an indigenous language such as Huichol and Zacateco but most of these are from other parts of Mexico and speak Spanish as well. The municipality borders the municipalities of Calera, Morelos, Vetagrande, Guadalupe, Genaro Codina and Jerez.^[2]

The municipality is wedged between the Sierra Madre Occidental and the subrange called Sierras y Valles Zacatecanos. The area is very rugged terrain filled with narrow valleys, ravines and mountains. The principal elevations include Cerro El Grillo at 2,690 m (8,830 ft), Cerro Los Alamitos at 2,680 m (8,790 ft), Cerro La Bufa at 2,650 m (8,690 ft), Cerro La Mesa at 2,590 m (8,500 ft), Mesas El Rincón Colorado at 2,540 m (8,330 ft), Cerro La Mesa at 2,440 m (8,010 ft) and Cerro Grande at 2,370 m (7,780 ft). The area is divided between the Lerma River and El Salado River basins, with a large number of small streams and arroyos crossing the territory.

Climate

Landscape of Zacatecas during a cold winter.

Zacatecas City has a cold semi-arid climate (BSk, according to the Köppen climate classification), with an average annual temperature of 15.7 °C (60 °F). Freezing temperatures are not uncommon, especially in January and February. During the winter of 2017–2018, Zacatecas municipality reached temperatures that haven't been reached in several years as 10 °F or −12 °C with a wind chill of 3 °F or −16 °C, although the coldest temperature occurred in Fresnillo which its another city close to Zacatecas City, where the temperature dropped to 3 °F or −15 °C with a wind chill of −2 °F or −20 °C.^[2] Most rain falls between June and September,^[2] and there is a defined winter.^[1] Principal wild vegetation is that adapted to dry areas such as nopals, mesquite, maguey and grasses, with pines and holm oaks in the higher elevations. Wildlife includes coyotes, grey foxes, bobcats, opossums, rabbits, raccoons, other small mammals as well as variety of small birds and reptiles.^[2]

Economy

The most important sectors of the municipal economy are mining, which employs about 21% of the population, livestock to which 76% of the surface area is dedicated and commerce, which employs over 70% of the population. Most mining today occurs on the Panuco, Vetagrande and Morelos mountains with the most active mines being El Compas, La Gallega, San Panuncio and San Rafael. Annual production is valued at 50,043 pesos for gold, 11,320 pesos for silver and 38,122 for lead. Non-metallic minerals include kaolin, building stone and petroleum aggregates. Agriculture and livestock is mostly done communally, with ten established ejidos. Only 15% of the municipality's land is farmed. This agriculture is dependent on the annual rainy season and produces some basic staples such as beans, chili peppers and corn. Livestock includes cattle, pigs, sheep, goats and horses. There is some industry related to food processing, textiles, wood products, paper and mining equipment as well as the making of crafts such as sarapes, stonework, leather and precious metals. Commerce is divided between providing for local needs as well as tourism.^[2] In addition to the city's status as a World Heritage site, there is camping available in the Sierra de Organos, Canon de Juchipila, the Cerro del Mixton and the Sierra de Cardos. La Quemada or Alta Vista-Chalchihuites is the best known archeological site in Zacatecas. Due to its location, the artifacts show influence of cultures such as Teotihuacan, the Purépechas and the Toltecs. It has several levels and built over a large hill. When it rains, water flows over the upper levels like a waterfall.^[19][22]

Municipal presidents