1868 Hawaiʻi earthquake
1868 Hawaii earthquake is located in Hawaii
Hilo
Hilo
Honolulu
Honolulu
1868 Hawaii earthquake
UTC time1868-04-03 02:30
USGS-ANSSComCat
Local dateApril 2, 1868 (1868-04-02)
Local time16:00
Magnitude7.9 Mfa[1]
Epicenter19°12′N 155°30′W / 19.2°N 155.5°W / 19.2; -155.5
Areas affectedHawaiʻi
Total damageLimited [1]
Max. intensityX (Extreme) [1]
TsunamiYes
Casualties77 killed [1][2]

The 1868 Hawaiʻi earthquake was the largest recorded in the history of Hawaiʻi island,[3] with an estimated magnitude of 7.9 Mfa[1] and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). The earthquake occurred at 4 p.m. local time on April 2, 1868 and caused a landslide and tsunami that led to 77 deaths. The aftershock sequence for this event has continued up to the present day.[4]

Background

The island of Hawaiʻi (commonly called the "Big Island") is the currently active volcanic center of the Hawaiian Islands formed over the Hawaii hotspot. Two of the active volcanoes on the Big Island are Kīlauea and Mauna Loa with a newer submarine volcano forming the Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount (formerly Lōʻihi) to the southeast of the island. Continued growth of the southeastern part of the island is accompanied by major slumping and southeastward movement of the flanks of the two volcanoes.[5]

This flank displacement is linked to extension within the rift zones associated with both of the active volcanoes, the Mauna Loa and Kīlauea rifts. From the interpretation of seismic reflection data, it has been proposed that the southeastward displacement takes place on a decollement surface near the top of the oceanic crust. The slumping is thought to affect only the upper part of the flank as the amount of shortening observed in the toe thrust zone is much larger than that observed in the extensional faults associated with the slumps, but matches well with estimates of extension within the volcanic rift systems.[6]

Selected Mercalli Intensities
MMILocations
X (Extreme) Hilo, Kīlauea, Nīnole, Pāhala, Punaluʻu
VIII (Severe) Kohala
VII (Very strong) Kealakekua, Waipiʻo
V (Moderate) Honolulu, Kauaʻi, Lānaʻi
U.S. Earthquake Intensity Database, National Geophysical Data Center

Hilina Slump

The Hilina Slump is the largest of the active slumps around the Hawaiian islands. The 'backscarp' to the slump is formed by the Hilina extensional fault system, which is known to have moved in both the 1868 event and the 1975 Kalapana earthquake.[7]

Earthquake

A firsthand description of the events was written by Frederick S. Lyman, a goat and sheep rancher at Keaīwa near the epicenter of the events.[8] A sequence of foreshocks began on March 27, with tremors every few minutes. They increased steadily in intensity, including one on March 28 that had an estimated magnitude of 7.1. The sequence continued until 4 p.m. on April 2, when the mainshock occurred.[3] One interpretation of this sequence of events is that they were related to the movement of two separate landslide structures on the south side of the island. The first, triggered by an eruption that began in the upper part of Mauna Loa's southwest rift, involved movement of a block that extended seawards for at least 12 miles (19 km). The tremors over the next four days are regarded as aftershocks of the 7.1 event caused by this movement. The mainshock involved movement of the entire southern flank of Kīlauea on the basal detachment at an estimated depth of 9 kilometers (5.6 mi),[9] and was probably triggered by the earlier event.[3]

The aftershock sequence has continued for over 140 years until the present day. The aftershock frequency fits a modified Omori (power law) for the first few decades and an exponential function thereafter.[4]

Damage

Destruction to Waiʻōhinu Church, photograph by Henry L. Chase, 1868

Wooden houses were knocked off their foundations in Keaīwa, Punaluʻu Beach and Nīnole, while thatched houses supported by posts in the same areas were torn to shreds.[10] The earthquake demolished nearly every stone wall and house within the Kaʻū district in an instant.[3] At Waiʻōhinu, a large stone church built by Reverend John D. Paris collapsed, and in Hilo the shaking destroyed the few stone buildings and most walls.[10]

Tsunami

A tsunami was caused by coastal subsidence associated with reactivation of the Hilina Slump, triggered by the earthquake. At Kapapala the land subsided by as much as 2 m and formerly dry land was flooded to a depth of 1.5 m.[10] The tsunami on the Kaʻū and Puna coasts caused major destruction at Honuapo, Keauhou (now Keauhou Landing) and Punaluʻu. The greatest damage was caused at Keauhou, where a wave height of 12–15 m was reported. All houses and warehouses were destroyed and 46 people were drowned.[10]

Many villages, such as ʻĀpua, were never resettled.[11]

Landslides

The earthquake triggered landslides over a wide area. The largest was a mudslide 3 km wide and 9 m thick, that swept down the flanks of Mauna Loa at Kapapala. It swept away trees, animals and people, causing 31 fatalities.[10]

Effect on volcanic eruptions

Lava bed after eruption, photograph by Henry L. Chase, 1868

Kīlauea was the most affected by the lateral displacement associated with the earthquake, as it did not have another major eruption until 1919.[3] It also disrupted the magma system beneath Mauna Loa, as is shown both in reduced lava volumes and an abrupt change in the lava chemistry.[12]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972), "Significant Earthquake Information", NCEI/WDS Global Significant Earthquake Database (Data Set), National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K
  2. ↑ Stover, C. W.; Coffman, J. L. (1993), Seismicity of the United States, 1568–1989 (Revised), U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1527, United States Government Printing Office, p. 207
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 "The Great Ka'u Earthquake of 1868". Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. April 1, 1994. Archived from the original on June 29, 2016. Retrieved December 11, 2010.
  4. 1 2 Klein, F.W.; Wright T. (2008). "Exponential decline of aftershocks of the M7.9 1868 great Kau earthquake, Hawaii, through the 20th century". Journal of Geophysical Research. American Geophysical Union. 113 (B9): B09310.1–B09310.11. Bibcode:2008JGRB..113.9310K. doi:10.1029/2007JB005411.
  5. ↑ Bryan, C.J.; Johnson C.E. (1991). "Block tectonics of the island of Hawaii from a focal mechanism analysis of basal slip". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. Seismological Society of America. 81 (2): 491–507. Archived from the original on 2011-09-30. Retrieved 2009-11-12.
  6. ↑ Morgan, J.K.; Moore G.F.; Hills D.J. & Leslie S. (2000). "Overthrusting and sediment accretion along Kīlauea's mobile south flank, Hawaii: Evidence for volcanic spreading from marine seismic reflection data". Geology. The Geological Society of America. 28 (7): 667–670. Bibcode:2000Geo....28..667M. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<667:OASAAK>2.0.CO;2.
  7. ↑ Cannon, E.C.; Bürgmann R. & Owen S.E. (2001). "Shallow Normal Faulting and Block Rotation Associated with the 1975 Kalapana Earthquake, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. Seismological Society of America. 91 (6): 1553–1562. Bibcode:2001BuSSA..91.1553C. doi:10.1785/0120000072. Retrieved 2009-11-12.
  8. ↑ Dana, J. D; Coan, T (July 1868). "Recent Eruption of Mauna Loa and Kilauea, Hawaii". American Journal of Science and Arts. American Journal of Science. 96 (136): 105–123. Bibcode:1868AmJS...46..105D. doi:10.2475/ajs.s2-46.136.105. S2CID 130168932. Retrieved December 11, 2010.
  9. ↑ Max Wyss (1988). "A proposed source model for the great Kau, Hawaii, earthquake of 1868". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. Seismological Society of America. 78 (4): 1450–1462. Bibcode:1988BuSSA..78.1450W. doi:10.1785/BSSA0780041450. Archived from the original on 2008-09-05. Retrieved 2009-11-12.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 USGS. "Ka'u District, Island of Hawaii 1868 04 03 02:25 UTC (04/02/1868 local) Magnitude 7.9, Largest Earthquake in Hawaii". Archived from the original on 2016-11-10. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
  11. ↑ Mary Kawena Pukui; Samuel Hoyt Elbert; Esther T. Mookini (2004). "lookup of Apua ". in Place Names of Hawai'i. Ulukau, the Hawaiian Electronic Library, University of Hawaii Press. Retrieved December 11, 2010.
  12. ↑ Tilling, R.I.; Rhodes J.M.; Sparks J.W.; Lockwood J.P. & Lipman P.W. (1987). "Disruption of the Mauna Loa Magma System by the 1868 Hawaiian Earthquake: Geochemical Evidence". Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 235 (4785): 196–199. Bibcode:1987Sci...235..196T. doi:10.1126/science.235.4785.196. PMID 17778633. S2CID 37524089. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
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