Alpha-gal syndrome
Other namesAlpha-gal syndrome (AGS)
Acquired red meat allergy
Mammalian meat allergy (MMA)
SymptomsAbdominal pain, anaphylaxis, angiodema, headaches, congestion, diarrhea, faintness, hives, nausea, rhinorrhea often with sternutation
Usual onsetdelayed
Durationunknown
CausesBites from certain species of ticks
TreatmentDesensitization

Alpha-gal syndrome (AGS), also known as alpha-gal allergy or mammalian meat allergy (MMA),[1] is a type of meat allergy characterized by a delayed onset of symptoms (3–8 hours) after ingesting mammalian meat. The condition results from past exposure to certain tick bites. It was first reported in 2002. Symptoms of the allergy include rash, hives, nausea or vomiting, difficulty breathing, drop in blood pressure, dizziness or faintness, and severe stomach pain.[2]

Alpha-gal allergy is a reaction to the carbohydrate galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose ("alpha-gal"), whereby the body is overloaded with immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies on contact with the carbohydrate.[3] Anti-gal is a human natural antibody that interacts specifically with the mammalian carbohydrate structure gal alpha 1-3Gal beta 1-4GlcNAc-R (the alpha-galactosyl epitope).[4] The alpha-gal molecule is found in all mammals except catarrhines (apes and Old World monkeys),[4] the taxonomic branch that includes humans.

Bites from specific tick species, such as the Lone Star tick (Amblyomma americanum) in the US, and the paralysis tick (Ixodes holocyclus) in Australia, which can transfer this carbohydrate to a victim, have been implicated in the development of this delayed allergic response to consumption of mammalian meat products ("red meat").[2] Healthcare providers recommend avoiding food products containing beef, pork, lamb, venison, rabbit, and offal to avoid triggering an allergic reaction.[2][5] Some afflicted individuals are so hypersensitive to alpha-gal that the allergy can cross-react with mammalian gelatin and even some dairy products.[2][5] Individuals with alpha-gal allergy do not need to become strict vegetarians because reptile meats, poultry and seafood naturally do not contain alpha-gal.[2]

Alpha-gal allergy has been reported in 17 countries on all six continents where humans are bitten by ticks, particularly the United States and Australia.[6] As of November 2019, Australia has the highest rate of mammalian meat allergy and tick anaphylaxis in the world.[7] In the US, the allergy most often occurs in the central and southern regions, which corresponds to the distribution of the Lone Star tick.[8] In the Southern United States, where the tick is most prevalent, allergy rates are 32% higher than elsewhere.[9] However, as doctors are not required to report the number of patients with alpha-gal allergy, the true number of affected individuals is unknown.[10] Alpha-gal has also been shown to exist in the saliva of Ixodes scapularis but not Amblyomma maculatum.[11]

Alpha-gal allergies are the first known food allergies that present the possibility of delayed anaphylaxis.[12][13][14]They are also the first known food-related allergies associated with a carbohydrate, rather than a protein.[13][15]

Symptoms

A typical allergic reaction to alpha-gal has a delayed onset, occurring 3–8 hours after the consumption of mammalian meat products, in contrast to the typical rapid onset of most food allergies. After the delayed onset, the allergic response is like most food allergies, and especially an IgE-mediated allergy, including severe whole-body itching, hives, angioedema, gastrointestinal upset, and possible anaphylaxis.[2][16] In 70% of cases, the reaction is accompanied by respiratory distress and as such is particularly harmful to those with asthma.[12] However, not every exposure to alpha-gal results in allergic reaction for some people with the allergy.[2]

Cause

Amblyomma americanum, a vector for the allergy

Alpha-gal allergies develop after a person has been bitten by the lone star tick in the United States, the European castor bean tick, the paralysis tick or Ixodes (Endopalpiger) australiensis in Australia,[17][6] Haemaphysalis longicornis in Japan,[18] or a currently unknown tick in South Africa, possibly Amblyomma hebraeum.[19][20] Alpha-gal is not naturally present in apes, Old World monkeys, or humans, but is in all other mammals.[16] If a tick feeds on another mammal, the alpha-gal remains in its alimentary tract.

The tick then injects the alpha-gal into a person's skin, which causes the immune system to release a flood of IgE antibodies to fight the foreign carbohydrate.[2][17] Researchers still do not know which specific component of tick saliva causes the reaction.[21] Only a small percentage of children and adults will acquire a red meat allergy after receiving a bite from a lone star tick.[22]

A 2012 preliminary study found unexpectedly high rates of alpha-gal allergy in the Western and North Central parts of the United States. This suggests that unknown tick species may spread the allergy.[9] The study found alpha-gal allergy cases in Hawaii, where no ticks identified with the allergies live.[21] Human factors were suggested, but no specific examples were provided.[9]

Blood thinners derived from porcine intestine and replacement heart valves derived from porcine tissue may also contain alpha-gal.[17] Alpha gal is found on the fragment-antigen binding (Fab) fragment of the recombinant monoclonal cetuximab antibody used in the immunotherapy treatment of metastatic colon cancer. Immediate hypersensitivities and reactions, specifically concentrated in the southern part of the United States, can be seen from the alpha-gal components of this anti-cancer drug. [23][24]

Mechanism

Recent research has shown that saliva from the lone star tick contains alpha-gal,[25] and that saliva is injected into the blood stream. The immune system then releases IgE antibodies to fight this foreign sugar.[2] After this reaction, the future intake of mammalian meat with the same alpha-gal causes an allergic reaction.[2] Symptoms of the allergy reaction are caused by too many IgE antibodies attacking the allergen – the alpha-gal.[2][17] Other types of ticks are suspected of causing similar problems.[26]

Diagnosis

A traditional skin-prick allergy test for allergy to meat may give a false-negative answer.[27] Determination of specific IgE to alpha-gal testing is commercially available, as well as IgE testing to specific red meats.[28] Skin and basophil activation tests with cetuximab are the most sensitive, but high costs limit their use.[28]

Prognosis

There is no cure for alpha-gal; the main form of management is abstaining from red meat and other mammalian products if necessary.[5] If an allergic individual who only experiences relatively mild symptoms consumes a food containing alpha-gal, then treatment with over-the-counter antihistamines may be acceptable.[22] Unlike most food allergies, in some people, the alpha-gal allergy may recede over time, as long as the person is not bitten by another tick. The recovery period can take 8 months to 5 years.[17][21][29]

Desensitization

As of 2017, only two successful desensitizations have been performed on patients with an alpha-gal allergy.[30]

Prevention and tick removal

Tick bites can be prevented by treating clothing and gear with products containing 0.5% permethrin and by avoiding areas inhabited by ticks.[31]

Debate exists around the best method of tick removal, although recent consensus is to freeze them with an ether-containing spray (available at pharmacies and used for warts).[32]

History

Ixodes holocyclus, the species of hard-bodied tick most likely to be responsible in Australia for instances of alpha-gal allergy.

The allergy was first formally identified as originating from tick bites in the United States in 2002 by Thomas Platts-Mills,[33] and independently by Sheryl van Nunen in Australia in 2007.[34][35][36]

Platts-Mills and Scott Commins were attempting to discover why some people were reacting negatively to the carbohydrate in the cancer drug cetuximab.[17][37] They had previously hypothesized that a fungal infection or parasite could lead to the allergy.[17][29] When Platts-Mills was bitten by a tick and developed alpha-gal allergies, his team came to the conclusion that a link existed between tick bites and the allergy.[29] They found that the IgE antibody response to the mammalian oligosaccharide epitope alpha-gal was associated with both the immediate-onset anaphylaxis during first exposure to intravenous cetuximab and the delayed-onset anaphylaxis 3 to 6 hours after ingestion of mammalian food products, such as beef or pork.[38]

In 2021, University of Tennessee entomologist Becky Trout Fryxell reported that more cases of Alpha-Gal syndrome are occurring from those who encounter the Lone Star tick: "She likes to feed on dogs, deer, and seems to always find people as well," said Fryxell. "It has the ability to transmit a lot of pathogens too. And it's also associated with a tick meat allergy, which unfortunately is becoming pretty common." "[39]

Van Nunen, an immunologist specialising in allergies, had been practicing in a tick-prone area of Sydney, when 25 patients reported having allergic reactions to red meat after being bitten by ticks.[40][41] She later concluded that the relatively sudden rise in cases was the result of a local fox baiting program that began in 2003. Foxes were introduced to Australia and had decimated the local indigenous bandicoot population, hence the fox baiting program. However, an unforeseen effect of the subsequent rise in the bandicoot population was the rise in ticks, as bandicoots are a major host for ticks, and thus the number of humans suffering tick bites.[42]

Alpha-gal allergies are similar to pork–cat syndrome, hence misidentification can occur. Pork–cat syndrome usually elicits an immediate allergic response, while a true alpha-gal allergy typically features a delayed allergic reaction of 3 to 8 hours after ingestion of the allergen.[43]

In 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved genetic modification of pigs so they do not produce alpha-gal sugars. Pigs developed with the trademarked name GalSafe may be able to be eaten safely by people with alpha-gal allergy.[44] They may also produce alpha-gal-safe drugs,[45] and their organs can also be used for xenotransplantation.[46]

New American guidelines published in 2023 told doctors to suspect AGS in cases with abdominal pain and GI symptoms, but without traditional allergy symptoms like hives.[47]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Catalyst (ABC-TV program) first aired 8 November 2016
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 "Alpha-gal syndrome". US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020-10-06. Retrieved 2021-07-21.
  3. ↑ Commins SP, Platts-Mills TA (February 2013). "Delayed anaphylaxis to red meat in patients with IgE specific for galactose alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal)". Current Allergy and Asthma Reports. 13 (1): 72–7. doi:10.1007/s11882-012-0315-y. PMC 3545071. PMID 23054628.
  4. 1 2 Galili U (1993). "Evolution and pathophysiology of the human natural anti-alpha-galactosyl IgG (anti-Gal) antibody". Springer Seminars in Immunopathology. 15 (2–3): 155–71. doi:10.1007/bf00201098. PMID 7504839. S2CID 33149564.
  5. 1 2 3 "Alpha-gal syndrome - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2022-07-14.
  6. 1 2 Kwak M, Somerville C, van Nunen S (July 2018). "A novel Australian tick Ixodes (Endopalpiger) australiensis inducing mammalian meat allergy after tick bite". Asia Pacific Allergy. 8 (3): e31. doi:10.5415/apallergy.2018.8.e31. PMC 6073180. PMID 30079309.
  7. ↑ Lawson, Kirsten (20 Nov 2019). "Gluten 'lifestylers' undermine efforts on coeliac disease". The Canberra Times. p. 4.
  8. ↑ "Meat Allergy: Alpha-Gal Reaction From Lone-Star Ticks More Common In Central, Southern U.S. Regions". 2012-11-09. Retrieved 9 January 2013.
  9. 1 2 3 Chan AL (November 9, 2012). "Where Meat Allergy From Ticks Is Most Common". Healthy Living.
  10. ↑ Frazier A (March 20, 2014). "Tick bite makes Lusby woman allergic to meat". The Washington Post. pp. METRO, T20. Archived from the original on July 2, 2018.
  11. ↑ Crispell, Gary; Commins, Scott P.; Archer-Hartman, Stephanie A.; Choudhary, Shailesh; Dharmarajan, Guha; Azadi, Parastoo; Karim, Shahid (2019). "Discovery of Alpha-Gal-Containing Antigens in North American Tick Species Believed to Induce Red Meat Allergy". Frontiers in Immunology. 10: 1056. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01056. PMC 6533943. PMID 31156631.
  12. 1 2 Wolver SE, Sun DR, Commins SP, Schwartz LB (February 2013). "A peculiar cause of anaphylaxis: no more steak? The journey to discovery of a newly recognized allergy to galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose found in mammalian meat". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 28 (2): 322–5. doi:10.1007/s11606-012-2144-z. PMC 3614139. PMID 22815061.
  13. 1 2 Alvarez A (July 25, 2012). "Tick bite leads to curious meat allergy". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
  14. ↑ "'Alpha-Gal' Syndrome". Cornell Cooperative Extension in Suffolk County. Cornell University.
  15. ↑ Smith O (June 20, 2012). "Ticks causing mysterious meat allergy". CNN.
  16. 1 2 Mabelane, T.; Ogunbanjo, G. A. (2019). "Ingestion of mammalian meat and alpha-gal allergy: Clinical relevance in primary care". African Journal of Primary Health Care & Family Medicine. 11 (1): e1–e5. doi:10.4102/phcfm.v11i1.1901. PMC 6494999. PMID 31038347. Mammalian meat and milk (cow and goat) contain alpha-gal.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Zaraska M (December 3, 2013). "Want hives with that burger?". The Washington Post. pp. HEALTH, E01.
  18. ↑ Cabezas-Cruz, Alejandro; Hodžić, Adnan; Román-Carrasco, Patricia; et al. (2019-05-31). "Environmental and Molecular Drivers of the α-Gal Syndrome". Frontiers in Immunology. 10: 1210. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01210. PMC 6554561. PMID 31214181.
  19. ↑ Facey-Thomas H (2018-01-08). "Alpha-gal". Allergy Foundation South Africa.
  20. ↑ Mabelane (2018). "Predictive values of alpha-gal IgE levels and alpha-gal IgE:total IgE ratio and oral food challenge proven meat allergy in a population with a high prevalence of reported red meat allergy". Pediatric Allergy and Immunology. 29 (8): 841–849. doi:10.1111/pai.12969. PMID 30144162. S2CID 52082108.
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  22. 1 2 lalawilson. "Acquired Red Meat Allergy". Epidemiology. Retrieved 2022-07-14.
  23. ↑ Chung CH, Mirakhur B, Chan E, et al. (2008). "Cetuximab-induced anaphylaxis and IgE specific for galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose". New England Journal of Medicine. 358 (11): 1109–17. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa074943. PMC 2361129. PMID 18337601.
  24. ↑ Dunkman WJ, Rycek W, Manning MW (2019). "What Does a Red Meat Allergy Have to Do With Anesthesia? Perioperative Management of Alpha-Gal Syndrome". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 129 (5): 1242–1248. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000003460. PMID 29847378.
  25. ↑ Crispell, Gary; Commins, Scott P.; Archer-Hartman, Stephanie A.; Choudhary, Shailesh; Dharmarajan, Guha; Azadi, Parastoo; Karim, Shahid (17 May 2019). "Discovery of Alpha-Gal-Containing Antigens in North American Tick Species Believed to Induce Red Meat Allergy". Frontiers in Immunology. 10: 1056. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01056. PMC 6533943. PMID 31156631.
  26. ↑ Ticks! Ick! The latest science on the red meat allergy caused by some tick bites
  27. ↑ Krishna N, Krishna S, Krishna R (November 2017). "P112 Correlation between clinical findings and laboratory tests for alpha gal sensitivity". Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. 119 (5): S37. doi:10.1016/j.anai.2017.08.136.
  28. 1 2 Bircher AJ, Hofmeier KS, Link S, Heijnen I (February 2017). "Food allergy to the carbohydrate galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal): four case reports and a review". European Journal of Dermatology. 27 (1): 3–9. doi:10.1684/ejd.2016.2908. PMID 27873733. S2CID 2400078.
  29. 1 2 3 Goetz G (June 26, 2012). "Red Meat Allergy Likely Cause by Tick Bites". Food Safety News.
  30. ↑ Unal D, Coskun R, Demir S, Gelincik A, Colakoglu B, Buyukozturk S (2017). "Successful beef desensitization in 2 adult patients with a delayed-type reaction to red meat". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. In Practice. 5 (2): 502–503. doi:10.1016/j.jaip.2016.12.008. PMID 28132797.
  31. ↑ CDC (2020-07-01). "Preventing tick bites on people | CDC". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2021-07-22.
  32. ↑ "TIARA - Tick Induced Allergies Research and Awareness". TIARA - Tick Induced Allergies Research and Awareness. Retrieved 2021-07-21.
  33. ↑ "NIAID Scientists Link Cases of Unexplained Anaphylaxis to Red Meat Allergy". National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 November 2017.
  34. ↑ Velasquez-Manoff, Moises (2018-07-24). "What the Mystery of the Tick-Borne Meat Allergy Could Reveal". The New York Times. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  35. ↑ McKenna, Maryn (2018-12-11). "What is behind the spread of a mysterious allergy to meat?". The Guardian. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  36. ↑ "Mammalian meat allergy: People on the northern beaches becoming allergic to red meat after tick bites". www.news.com.au. 2016-06-13. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  37. ↑ Commins SP, Platts-Mills TA (October 2009). "Anaphylaxis syndromes related to a new mammalian cross-reactive carbohydrate determinant". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 124 (4): 652–7. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2009.08.026. PMC 2774206. PMID 19815111.
  38. ↑ Berg EA, Platts-Mills TA, Commins SP (February 2014). "Drug allergens and food--the cetuximab and galactose-α-1,3-galactose story". Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. 112 (2): 97–101. doi:10.1016/j.anai.2013.11.014. PMC 3964477. PMID 24468247.
  39. ↑ Lunsford, Erica (July 12, 2021). "Entomologist warns about tickborne meat allergy". WVLT TV News, Knoxville TN. Archived from the original on 2021-07-21. Retrieved 2021-07-21.
  40. ↑ McMahon, Alle (2019-01-18). "How tick bites can make some people allergic to meat and milk". ABC News. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  41. ↑ "Mammalian meat allergy: a tick-ing time bomb?". Australian Veterinary Association. Archived from the original on 2019-03-27. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  42. ↑ "Tick-induced allergies, with Associate Professor Sheryl van Nunen". MJA Podcasts. Medical Journal of Australia. 2018. Episode 27. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  43. ↑ Zaraska M (December 3, 2013). "Cat owners can also develop meat allergy". The Washington Post. pp. HEALTH, E05. Archived from the original on June 25, 2018.
  44. ↑ Dolgin, Elie (2021-04-01). "First GM pigs for allergies. Could xenotransplants be next?". Nature Biotechnology. 39 (4): 397–400. doi:10.1038/s41587-021-00885-9. ISSN 1546-1696.
  45. ↑ Commissioner, Office of the (2020-12-14). "FDA Approves First-of-its-Kind Intentional Genomic Alteration in Line of Domestic Pigs for Both Human Food, Potential Therapeutic Uses". FDA. Retrieved 2021-10-30.
  46. ↑ "Progress in Xenotransplantation Opens Door to New Supply of Critically Needed Organs". NYU Langone News. Retrieved 2021-10-30.
  47. ↑ Ticks! Ick! The latest science on the red meat allergy caused by some tick bites

Further reading

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