APP
Available structures
PDBOrtholog search: PDBe RCSB
Identifiers
AliasesAPP, AAA, ABETA, ABPP, AD1, APPI, CTFgamma, CVAP, PN-II, PN2, amyloid beta precursor protein, preA4, alpha-sAPP
External IDsOMIM: 104760 MGI: 88059 HomoloGene: 56379 GeneCards: APP
Orthologs
SpeciesHumanMouse
Entrez

351

11820

Ensembl

ENSG00000142192

ENSMUSG00000022892

UniProt

P05067

P12023

RefSeq (mRNA)

NM_001198823
NM_001198824
NM_001198825
NM_001198826
NM_007471

RefSeq (protein)

NP_001185752
NP_001185753
NP_001185754
NP_001185755
NP_031497

Location (UCSC)Chr 21: 25.88 – 26.17 MbChr 16: 84.75 – 84.97 Mb
PubMed search[3][4]
Wikidata
View/Edit HumanView/Edit Mouse
(a) A low magnification image immediately after co-injection of red negatively charged and green glycine-conjugated beads showing the injection site, marked with an oil droplet, appearing as a round yellow sphere. Overlap of red and green fluorescence produces a yellow image. (b) At 50 min after injection, the red carboxylated beads have progressed in the anterograde direction (to the right) while the green glycine-conjugated beads have made no progress. (c)–(e) An axon co-injected with red APP-C beads and green glycine beads and imaged for 100 frames at 4 s intervals at 40× magnification. (c) Red channel (left) first frame; (center) 50 frames superimposed; (right) all 100 frames superimposed. Note the progression of individual beads towards the right, anterograde, side of the injection site heading towards the presynaptic terminal. (d) Two images of the green channel from the same video sequence; (left) first frame; (center) 100 frames superimposed. Note the lack of significant movement of the green glycine beads. (e) Both red and green channels from 100 frames superimposed of the same video as in (c) and (d). (f) Single bead trajectories at high magnification from a set of superimposed frames showing movements of beads.

Amyloid-beta precursor protein (APP) is an integral membrane protein expressed in many tissues and concentrated in the synapses of neurons. It functions as a cell surface receptor[5] and has been implicated as a regulator of synapse formation,[6] neural plasticity,[7] antimicrobial activity,[8] and iron export.[9] It is coded for by the gene APP and regulated by substrate presentation.[10] APP is best known as the precursor molecule whose proteolysis generates amyloid beta (Aβ), a polypeptide containing 37 to 49 amino acid residues, whose amyloid fibrillar form is the primary component of amyloid plaques found in the brains of Alzheimer's disease patients.

Genetics

Amyloid-beta precursor protein is an ancient and highly conserved protein.[11] In humans, the gene APP is located on chromosome 21 and contains 18 exons spanning 290 kilobases.[12][13] Several alternative splicing isoforms of APP have been observed in humans, ranging in length from 639 to 770 amino acids, with certain isoforms preferentially expressed in neurons; changes in the neuronal ratio of these isoforms have been associated with Alzheimer's disease.[14] Homologous proteins have been identified in other organisms such as Drosophila (fruit flies), C. elegans (roundworms),[15] and all mammals.[16] The amyloid beta region of the protein, located in the membrane-spanning domain, is not well conserved across species and has no obvious connection with APP's native-state biological functions.[16]

Mutations in critical regions of amyloid precursor protein, including the region that generates amyloid beta (Aβ), cause familial susceptibility to Alzheimer's disease.[17][18][19][20] For example, several mutations outside the Aβ region associated with familial Alzheimer's have been found to dramatically increase production of Aβ.[21]

A mutation (A673T) in the APP gene protects against Alzheimer's disease. This substitution is adjacent to the beta secretase cleavage site and results in a 40% reduction in the formation of amyloid beta in vitro.[22]

Structure

The metal-binding domain of APP with a bound copper ion. The side chains of the two histidine and one tyrosine residues that play a role in metal coordination are shown in the Cu(I) bound, Cu(II) bound, and unbound conformations, which differ by only small changes in orientation.
The extracellular E2 domain, a dimeric coiled coil and one of the most highly conserved regions of the protein from Drosophila to humans. This domain, which resembles the structure of spectrin, is thought to bind heparan sulfate proteoglycans.[23]

A number of different structural domains that fold mostly on their own have been found in the APP sequence. The extracellular region, much larger than the intracellular region, is divided into the E1 and E2 domains, linked by an acidic domain (AcD); E1 contains two subdomains including a growth factor-like domain (GFLD) and a copper-binding domain (CuBD) interacting tightly together.[24] A serine protease inhibitor domain, absent from the isoform differentially expressed in the brain, is found between acidic region and E2 domain.[25] The complete crystal structure of APP has not yet been solved; however, individual domains have been successfully crystallized, the growth factor-like domain,[26] the copper-binding domain,[27] the complete E1 domain[24] and the E2 domain.[23]

Post-translational processing

APP undergoes extensive post-translational modification including glycosylation, phosphorylation, sialylation, and tyrosine sulfation, as well as many types of proteolytic processing to generate peptide fragments.[28] It is commonly cleaved by proteases in the secretase family; alpha secretase and beta secretase both remove nearly the entire extracellular domain to release membrane-anchored carboxy-terminal fragments that may be associated with apoptosis.[16] Cleavage by gamma secretase within the membrane-spanning domain after beta-secretase cleavage generates the amyloid-beta fragment; gamma secretase is a large multi-subunit complex whose components have not yet been fully characterized, but include presenilin, whose gene has been identified as a major genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's.[29]

The amyloidogenic processing of APP has been linked to its presence in lipid rafts. When APP molecules occupy a lipid raft region of membrane, they are more accessible to and differentially cleaved by beta secretase, whereas APP molecules outside a raft are differentially cleaved by the non-amyloidogenic alpha secretase.[30] Gamma secretase activity has also been associated with lipid rafts.[31] The role of cholesterol in lipid raft maintenance has been cited as a likely explanation for observations that high cholesterol and apolipoprotein E genotype are major risk factors for Alzheimer's disease.[32]

Biological function

Although the native biological role of APP is of obvious interest to Alzheimer's research, thorough understanding has remained elusive. Experimental models of Alzheimer's disease are commonly used by researchers to gain better understandings about the biological function of APP in disease pathology and progression.

Synaptic formation and repair

The most-substantiated role for APP is in synaptic formation and repair;[6] its expression is upregulated during neuronal differentiation and after neural injury. Roles in cell signaling, long-term potentiation, and cell adhesion have been proposed and supported by as-yet limited research.[16] In particular, similarities in post-translational processing have invited comparisons to the signaling role of the surface receptor protein Notch.[33]

APP knockout mice are viable and have relatively minor phenotypic effects including impaired long-term potentiation and memory loss without general neuron loss.[34] On the other hand, transgenic mice with upregulated APP expression have also been reported to show impaired long-term potentiation.[35]

The logical inference is that because Aβ accumulates excessively in Alzheimer's disease its precursor, APP, would be elevated as well. However, neuronal cell bodies contain less APP as a function of their proximity to amyloid plaques.[36] The data indicate that this deficit in APP results from a decline in production rather than an increase in catalysis. Loss of a neuron's APP may affect physiological deficits that contribute to dementia.

Somatic recombination

In neurons of the human brain, somatic recombination occurs frequently in the gene that encodes APP.[37] Neurons from individuals with sporadic Alzheimer's disease show greater APP gene diversity due to somatic recombination than neurons from healthy individuals.[37]

Anterograde neuronal transport

Molecules synthesized in the cell bodies of neurons must be conveyed outward to the distal synapses. This is accomplished via fast anterograde transport. It has been found that APP can mediate interaction between cargo and kinesin and thus facilitate this transport. Specifically, a short peptide 15-amino-acid sequence from the cytoplasmic carboxy-terminus is necessary for interaction with the motor protein.[38]

Additionally, it has been shown that the interaction between APP and kinesin is specific to the peptide sequence of APP.[39] In a recent experiment involving transport of peptide-conjugated colored beads, controls were conjugated to a single amino acid, glycine, such that they display the same terminal carboxylic acid group as APP without the intervening 15-amino-acid sequence mentioned above. The control beads were not motile, which demonstrated that the terminal COOH moiety of peptides is not sufficient to mediate transport.

Iron export

A different perspective on Alzheimer's is revealed by a mouse study that has found that APP possesses ferroxidase activity similar to ceruloplasmin, facilitating iron export through interaction with ferroportin; it seems that this activity is blocked by zinc trapped by accumulated Aβ in Alzheimer's.[9] It has been shown that a single nucleotide polymorphism in the 5'UTR of APP mRNA can disrupt its translation.[40]

The hypothesis that APP has ferroxidase activity in its E2 domain and facilitates export of Fe(II) is possibly incorrect since the proposed ferroxidase site of APP located in the E2 domain does not have ferroxidase activity.[41][42]

As APP does not possess ferroxidase activity within its E2 domain, the mechanism of APP-modulated iron efflux from ferroportin has come under scrutiny. One model suggests that APP acts to stabilize the iron efflux protein ferroportin in the plasma membrane of cells thereby increasing the total number of ferroportin molecules at the membrane. These iron-transporters can then be activated by known mammalian ferroxidases (i.e. ceruloplasmin or hephaestin).[43]

Hormonal regulation

The amyloid-β precursor protein (AβPP), and all associated secretases, are expressed early in development and play a key role in the endocrinology of reproduction – with the differential processing of AβPP by secretases regulating human embryonic stem cell (hESC) proliferation as well as their differentiation into neural precursor cells (NPC). The pregnancy hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) increases AβPP expression[44] and hESC proliferation while progesterone directs AβPP processing towards the non-amyloidogenic pathway, which promotes hESC differentiation into NPC.[45][46][47]

AβPP and its cleavage products do not promote the proliferation and differentiation of post-mitotic neurons; rather, the overexpression of either wild-type or mutant AβPP in post-mitotic neurons induces apoptotic death following their re-entry into the cell cycle.[48] It is postulated that the loss of sex steroids (including progesterone) but the elevation in luteinizing hormone, the adult equivalent of hCG, post-menopause and during andropause drives amyloid-β production[49] and re-entry of post-mitotic neurons into the cell cycle.

Interactions

Amyloid precursor protein has been shown to interact with:

APP interacts with reelin, a protein implicated in a number of brain disorders, including Alzheimer's disease.[70]

References

  1. 1 2 3 GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000142192 - Ensembl, May 2017
  2. 1 2 3 GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000022892 - Ensembl, May 2017
  3. ↑ "Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  4. ↑ "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  5. ↑ "Amyloid-beta precursor protein". Retrieved 10 January 2021.
  6. 1 2 Priller C, Bauer T, Mitteregger G, Krebs B, Kretzschmar HA, Herms J (Jul 2006). "Synapse formation and function is modulated by the amyloid precursor protein". The Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (27): 7212–21. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1450-06.2006. PMC 6673945. PMID 16822978.
  7. ↑ Turner PR, O'Connor K, Tate WP, Abraham WC (May 2003). "Roles of amyloid precursor protein and its fragments in regulating neural activity, plasticity and memory". Progress in Neurobiology. 70 (1): 1–32. doi:10.1016/S0301-0082(03)00089-3. PMID 12927332. S2CID 25376584.
  8. ↑ Moir RD, Lathe R, Tanzi RE (2018). "The antimicrobial protection hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease". Alzheimer's & Dementia. 14 (12): 1602–1614. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2018.06.3040. PMID 30314800.
  9. 1 2 Duce JA, Tsatsanis A, Cater MA, James SA, Robb E, Wikhe K, Leong SL, Perez K, Johanssen T, Greenough MA, Cho HH, Galatis D, Moir RD, Masters CL, McLean C, Tanzi RE, Cappai R, Barnham KJ, Ciccotosto GD, Rogers JT, Bush AI (Sep 2010). "Iron-export ferroxidase activity of β-amyloid precursor protein is inhibited by zinc in Alzheimer's disease". Cell. 142 (6): 857–67. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.08.014. PMC 2943017. PMID 20817278.
  10. ↑ Wang, Hao; Kulas, Joshua A.; Wang, Chao; Holtzman, David M.; Ferris, Heather A.; Hansen, Scott B. (17 August 2021). "Regulation of beta-amyloid production in neurons by astrocyte-derived cholesterol". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (33): e2102191118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11802191W. doi:10.1073/pnas.2102191118. PMC 8379952. PMID 34385305.
  11. ↑ Tharp WG, Sarkar IN (April 2013). "Origins of amyloid-β". BMC Genomics. 14 (1): 290. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-14-290. PMC 3660159. PMID 23627794.
  12. ↑ Yoshikai S, Sasaki H, Doh-ura K, Furuya H, Sakaki Y (Mar 1990). "Genomic organization of the human amyloid beta-protein precursor gene". Gene. 87 (2): 257–63. doi:10.1016/0378-1119(90)90310-N. PMID 2110105.
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  14. ↑ Matsui T, Ingelsson M, Fukumoto H, Ramasamy K, Kowa H, Frosch MP, Irizarry MC, Hyman BT (Aug 2007). "Expression of APP pathway mRNAs and proteins in Alzheimer's disease". Brain Research. 1161: 116–23. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2007.05.050. PMID 17586478. S2CID 26901380.
  15. ↑ Ewald, Collin Y.; Li, Chris (2012-04-01). "Caenorhabditis elegans as a model organism to study APP function". Experimental Brain Research. 217 (3–4): 397–411. doi:10.1007/s00221-011-2905-7. ISSN 0014-4819. PMC 3746071. PMID 22038715.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Zheng H, Koo EH (2006). "The amyloid precursor protein: beyond amyloid". Molecular Neurodegeneration. 1 (1): 5. doi:10.1186/1750-1326-1-5. PMC 1538601. PMID 16930452.
  17. ↑ Goate A, Chartier-Harlin MC, Mullan M, Brown J, Crawford F, Fidani L, Giuffra L, Haynes A, Irving N, James L (Feb 1991). "Segregation of a missense mutation in the amyloid precursor protein gene with familial Alzheimer's disease". Nature. 349 (6311): 704–6. Bibcode:1991Natur.349..704G. doi:10.1038/349704a0. PMID 1671712. S2CID 4336069.
  18. ↑ Murrell J, Farlow M, Ghetti B, Benson MD (Oct 1991). "A mutation in the amyloid precursor protein associated with hereditary Alzheimer's disease". Science. 254 (5028): 97–9. Bibcode:1991Sci...254...97M. doi:10.1126/science.1925564. PMID 1925564.
  19. ↑ Chartier-Harlin MC, Crawford F, Houlden H, Warren A, Hughes D, Fidani L, Goate A, Rossor M, Roques P, Hardy J (Oct 1991). "Early-onset Alzheimer's disease caused by mutations at codon 717 of the beta-amyloid precursor protein gene". Nature. 353 (6347): 844–6. Bibcode:1991Natur.353..844C. doi:10.1038/353844a0. PMID 1944558. S2CID 4345311.
  20. ↑ Lloyd, GM; Trejo-Lopez, JA; Xia, Y; McFarland, KN; Lincoln, SJ; Ertekin-Taner, N; Giasson, BI; Yachnis, AT; Prokop, S (12 March 2020). "Prominent amyloid plaque pathology and cerebral amyloid angiopathy in APP V717I (London) carrier - phenotypic variability in autosomal dominant Alzheimer's disease". Acta Neuropathologica Communications. 8 (1): 31. doi:10.1186/s40478-020-0891-3. PMC 7068954. PMID 32164763.
  21. ↑ Citron M, Oltersdorf T, Haass C, McConlogue L, Hung AY, Seubert P, Vigo-Pelfrey C, Lieberburg I, Selkoe DJ (Dec 1992). "Mutation of the beta-amyloid precursor protein in familial Alzheimer's disease increases beta-protein production". Nature. 360 (6405): 672–4. Bibcode:1992Natur.360..672C. doi:10.1038/360672a0. PMID 1465129. S2CID 4341170.
  22. ↑ Jonsson T, Atwal JK, Steinberg S, Snaedal J, Jonsson PV, Bjornsson S, Stefansson H, Sulem P, Gudbjartsson D, Maloney J, Hoyte K, Gustafson A, Liu Y, Lu Y, Bhangale T, Graham RR, Huttenlocher J, Bjornsdottir G, Andreassen OA, Jönsson EG, Palotie A, Behrens TW, Magnusson OT, Kong A, Thorsteinsdottir U, Watts RJ, Stefansson K (Aug 2012). "A mutation in APP protects against Alzheimer's disease and age-related cognitive decline". Nature. 488 (7409): 96–9. Bibcode:2012Natur.488...96J. doi:10.1038/nature11283. PMID 22801501. S2CID 4333449.
  23. 1 2 PDB: 1RW6​; Wang Y, Ha Y (Aug 2004). "The X-ray structure of an antiparallel dimer of the human amyloid precursor protein E2 domain". Molecular Cell. 15 (3): 343–53. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2004.06.037. PMID 15304215.
  24. 1 2 Dahms SO, Hoefgen S, Roeser D, Schlott B, Gührs KH, Than ME (Mar 2010). "Structure and biochemical analysis of the heparin-induced E1 dimer of the amyloid precursor protein". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (12): 5381–6. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.5381D. doi:10.1073/pnas.0911326107. PMC 2851805. PMID 20212142.; see also PDB ID 3KTM​
  25. ↑ Sisodia SS, Koo EH, Hoffman PN, Perry G, Price DL (Jul 1993). "Identification and transport of full-length amyloid precursor proteins in rat peripheral nervous system". The Journal of Neuroscience. 13 (7): 3136–42. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.13-07-03136.1993. PMC 6576678. PMID 8331390.
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  27. ↑ Kong GK, Adams JJ, Harris HH, Boas JF, Curtain CC, Galatis D, Masters CL, Barnham KJ, McKinstry WJ, Cappai R, Parker MW (Mar 2007). "Structural studies of the Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein copper-binding domain reveal how it binds copper ions". Journal of Molecular Biology. 367 (1): 148–61. doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2006.12.041. PMID 17239395.; See also 2007 PDB IDs 2FJZ​, 2FK2​, 2FKL​.
  28. ↑ De Strooper B, Annaert W (Jun 2000). "Proteolytic processing and cell biological functions of the amyloid precursor protein". Journal of Cell Science. 113 (11): 1857–70. doi:10.1242/jcs.113.11.1857. PMID 10806097.
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  30. ↑ Ehehalt R, Keller P, Haass C, Thiele C, Simons K (Jan 2003). "Amyloidogenic processing of the Alzheimer beta-amyloid precursor protein depends on lipid rafts". The Journal of Cell Biology. 160 (1): 113–23. doi:10.1083/jcb.200207113. PMC 2172747. PMID 12515826.
  31. ↑ Vetrivel KS, Cheng H, Lin W, Sakurai T, Li T, Nukina N, Wong PC, Xu H, Thinakaran G (Oct 2004). "Association of gamma-secretase with lipid rafts in post-Golgi and endosome membranes". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 279 (43): 44945–54. doi:10.1074/jbc.M407986200. PMC 1201506. PMID 15322084.
  32. ↑ Riddell DR, Christie G, Hussain I, Dingwall C (Aug 2001). "Compartmentalization of beta-secretase (Asp2) into low-buoyant density, noncaveolar lipid rafts". Current Biology. 11 (16): 1288–93. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(01)00394-3. PMID 11525745. S2CID 15502857.
  33. ↑ Selkoe D, Kopan R (2003). "Notch and Presenilin: regulated intramembrane proteolysis links development and degeneration". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 26 (1): 565–97. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131334. PMID 12730322.
  34. ↑ Phinney AL, Calhoun ME, Wolfer DP, Lipp HP, Zheng H, Jucker M (1999). "No hippocampal neuron or synaptic bouton loss in learning-impaired aged beta-amyloid precursor protein-null mice". Neuroscience. 90 (4): 1207–16. doi:10.1016/S0306-4522(98)00645-9. PMID 10338291. S2CID 6001957.
  35. ↑ Matsuyama S, Teraoka R, Mori H, Tomiyama T (2007). "Inverse correlation between amyloid precursor protein and synaptic plasticity in transgenic mice". NeuroReport. 18 (10): 1083–7. doi:10.1097/WNR.0b013e3281e72b18. PMID 17558301. S2CID 34157306.
  36. ↑ Barger SW, DeWall KM, Liu L, Mrak RE, Griffin WS (Aug 2008). "Relationships between expression of apolipoprotein E and beta-amyloid precursor protein are altered in proximity to Alzheimer beta-amyloid plaques: potential explanations from cell culture studies". Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology. 67 (8): 773–83. doi:10.1097/NEN.0b013e318180ec47. PMC 3334532. PMID 18648325.
  37. 1 2 Lee MH, Siddoway B, Kaeser GE, Segota I, Rivera R, Romanow WJ, Liu CS, Park C, Kennedy G, Long T, Chun J (November 2018). "Somatic APP gene recombination in Alzheimer's disease and normal neurons". Nature. 563 (7733): 639–645. Bibcode:2018Natur.563..639L. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0718-6. PMC 6391999. PMID 30464338.
  38. ↑ Satpute-Krishnan P, DeGiorgis JA, Conley MP, Jang M, Bearer EL (Oct 2006). "A peptide zipcode sufficient for anterograde transport within amyloid precursor protein". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (44): 16532–7. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10316532S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0607527103. PMC 1621108. PMID 17062754.
  39. ↑ Seamster PE, Loewenberg M, Pascal J, Chauviere A, Gonzales A, Cristini V, Bearer EL (Oct 2012). "Quantitative measurements and modeling of cargo-motor interactions during fast transport in the living axon". Physical Biology. 9 (5): 055005. Bibcode:2012PhBio...9e5005S. doi:10.1088/1478-3975/9/5/055005. PMC 3625656. PMID 23011729.
  40. ↑ Rogers JT, Bush AI, Cho HH, Smith DH, Thomson AM, Friedlich AL, Lahiri DK, Leedman PJ, Huang X, Cahill CM (Dec 2008). "Iron and the translation of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and ferritin mRNAs: riboregulation against neural oxidative damage in Alzheimer's disease". Biochemical Society Transactions. 36 (Pt 6): 1282–7. doi:10.1042/BST0361282. PMC 2746665. PMID 19021541.
  41. ↑ Ebrahimi KH, Hagedoorn PL, Hagen WR (2012). "A synthetic peptide with the putative iron binding motif of amyloid precursor protein (APP) does not catalytically oxidize iron". PLOS ONE. 7 (8): e40287. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...740287E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040287. PMC 3419245. PMID 22916096.
  42. ↑ Honarmand Ebrahimi K, Dienemann C, Hoefgen S, Than ME, Hagedoorn PL, Hagen WR (2013). "The amyloid precursor protein (APP) does not have a ferroxidase site in its E2 domain". PLOS ONE. 8 (8): e72177. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...872177H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0072177. PMC 3747053. PMID 23977245.
  43. ↑ McCarthy RC, Park YH, Kosman DJ (Jul 2014). "sAPP modulates iron efflux from brain microvascular endothelial cells by stabilizing the ferrous iron exporter ferroportin". EMBO Reports. 15 (7): 809–15. doi:10.15252/embr.201338064. PMC 4196985. PMID 24867889.
  44. ↑ Porayette P, Gallego MJ, Kaltcheva MM, Meethal SV, Atwood CS (Dec 2007). "Amyloid-beta precursor protein expression and modulation in human embryonic stem cells: a novel role for human chorionic gonadotropin". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 364 (3): 522–7. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.10.021. PMID 17959150.
  45. ↑ Porayette P, Gallego MJ, Kaltcheva MM, Bowen RL, Vadakkadath Meethal S, Atwood CS (Aug 2009). "Differential processing of amyloid-beta precursor protein directs human embryonic stem cell proliferation and differentiation into neuronal precursor cells". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 284 (35): 23806–17. doi:10.1074/jbc.M109.026328. PMC 2749153. PMID 19542221.
  46. ↑ Gallego MJ, Porayette P, Kaltcheva MM, Meethal SV, Atwood CS (Jun 2009). "Opioid and progesterone signaling is obligatory for early human embryogenesis". Stem Cells and Development. 18 (5): 737–40. doi:10.1089/scd.2008.0190. PMC 2891507. PMID 18803462.
  47. ↑ Gallego MJ, Porayette P, Kaltcheva MM, Bowen RL, Vadakkadath Meethal S, Atwood CS (2010). "The pregnancy hormones human chorionic gonadotropin and progesterone induce human embryonic stem cell proliferation and differentiation into neuroectodermal rosettes". Stem Cell Research & Therapy. 1 (4): 28. doi:10.1186/scrt28. PMC 2983441. PMID 20836886.
  48. ↑ McPhie DL, Coopersmith R, Hines-Peralta A, Chen Y, Ivins KJ, Manly SP, Kozlowski MR, Neve KA, Neve RL (Jul 2003). "DNA synthesis and neuronal apoptosis caused by familial Alzheimer disease mutants of the amyloid precursor protein are mediated by the p21 activated kinase PAK3". The Journal of Neuroscience. 23 (17): 6914–27. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-17-06914.2003. PMC 6740729. PMID 12890786.
  49. ↑ Bowen RL, Verdile G, Liu T, Parlow AF, Perry G, Smith MA, Martins RN, Atwood CS (May 2004). "Luteinizing hormone, a reproductive regulator that modulates the processing of amyloid-beta precursor protein and amyloid-beta deposition". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 279 (19): 20539–45. doi:10.1074/jbc.M311993200. PMID 14871891.
  50. 1 2 3 Biederer T, Cao X, Südhof TC, Liu X (Sep 2002). "Regulation of APP-dependent transcription complexes by Mint/X11s: differential functions of Mint isoforms". The Journal of Neuroscience. 22 (17): 7340–51. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-17-07340.2002. PMC 6757996. PMID 12196555.
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