Biscayne American Crocodile

Crocodile oil is extracted from the fatty tissues of crocodiles. Crocodile fat is a product of commercial farming, evident in Thailand. Historically, for centuries crocodile oil has been used by traditional practitioners across the globe, including Chinese Traditional Medicine, Southeast Asia, Ancient Egypt. Crocodile oil was found to be used since the 19th century for different purposes in different cultures.[1] Due to the oil's components, its richness in monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated fats, it is today commonly used as ointment for treatment of skin conditions, skin structure enhancement, collagen deposition, and medicine for illnesses.[2] In recent times, the use of crocodile oil has invited criticism from the use of crocodile oil as there is an increased demand for cruelty-free and vegan-friendly beauty products in consumers of today's society.

History

Crocodile oil was used by traditional practitioners for centuries in treatment of ailments, skin conditions, and illnesses such as cancer.[3] In Ancient Egyptian medicine, crocodile oil was used in a liniment to stimulate the growth of hair, to treat bald patches also called Alopecia as well as prevent grey hair growth.[4] Crocodile oil was recognised by the Ancient Egyptians to treat burns when combined with other components such as Egyptian Goat fat and lion fat.[4] Crocodile oil was also used by the Egyptians to help with trembling in limbs when smeared with other components including honey and olive oil.[4] The Papyrus Ebers mentions Egyptians medicine recommends the creation of a vaginal contraceptive solution composed of crocodile oil, gum acacia or honey, and natron.[4] The Historical Table of the Materia Media reports crocodile oil use in Egyptian Medicine in creating the ointment with combination of "slime of the nile", frictions of crocodile fat in rheumatism, salt, alum, platters.[5] In Africa, crocodile oil is used for ailments such as skin rashes and to promote wound healing. There is also evidence of crocodile oil being used traditionally in South Africa.[6] South Africans consult traditional healers, where they play a role in expanding the healthcare system in rural areas. Crocodile fat is mixed with the ground bark of Cryptocarya latifolia and used by the Zulu people to treat chest ailments.[6]

Crocodile oil was also used by Indian Medicine in the 19th century mentions the use of crocodile oil due to the oil natural properties for treatment of burns.[7] They reported other uses of crocodile such as its fat, meat, and skin.[7] Crocodile oil use in India is recorded in numerous other journals, more specifically, the oil is prepared by the Sanif tribe who eats crocodile fat, located in Panjab.[8] They state crocodile oil contains larger amounts of "solidifiable fat" than any fish oil.[8] The journal also mentions the oil to be procurable in abundance in Agra.[8] Similarly, a journal from the University of Illinois, published by Royal Society of Arts in 1879 discussed the commercial value of crocodile oil as well as how the oil was used in the 19th century specifically in Agra, India.[1] A Western researcher examined that crocodile oil contained larger proportion of solid fat either cod liver or fish oils. They softened the quality of various animal oils on leather and found leather treated with crocodile oil remained stiffer compared to other natural oils. Melted fat of crocodile or crocodile oil was also recorded to be used for "gastric obstructions".[9] In addition, a journal dated in 1886 also refers to the use of crocodile oil in Germany for leather dressing, prepared in Punjaub and solidified at 33 degrees.[10]

Chinese traditional medicine as well as Southeast Asian medicine uses crocodile oil and products as ointments for burns and scalds.[11] A study tested burn wound-healing efficacy of crocodile oil through a Chinese herbal medicine called crocodile oil burn ointment, consisting of crocodile oil, natural mineral and extraction of other herbal medicines by employing second-degree burns in rats and found crocodile oil enhances burn wound healing capabilities.[12] Chinese traditional medicine uses the oil of crocodiles for other conditions such as bronchitis, allergy, skin problems, high blood pressure, and cancer.[13] Crocodile oil is also prescribed to treat burns, skin ulcers and cancer, coughs, and asthma in Madagascar.[13][14] There is also evidence of crocodile oil being used traditionally in South Africa for skin condition treatments for eczema and rashes and for promoting wound healing.[3] Crocodile oil is used in Mexico for treatment of illnesses such as asthma, emphysema, and influenza.[3]

Composition

The following table provides information about the composition of the fatty acids in crocodile oil:

Fatty acid contents in crocodile oil[3]
Fatty acid % Methylated content
Undedecanoate 0.139 ± 0.092
Tridecanoate 0.017 ± 0.006
Myristate 1.156 ± 0.167
Pentadecanoate 0.250 ± 0.000
Palmitoleate 3.138 ± 0.231
Palmitate 15.436 ± 1.038
Heptadecanoate 0.476 ± 0.054
Linoleate 4.031 ± 0.776
Linolelaidic 0.161 ± 0.093
Oleate 19.593 ± 1.764
Elaidate 0.205 ± 0.086
Stearate 1.359 ± 0.738
Eicosenoate 0.051 ± 0.024
Arachidate 0.002 ± 0.002
Erucate < 0.001
Lignoceric acid 1.339 ± 0.675

The table below compares acid in crocodile oil and human skin oil:

Crocodile oil compared to human skin oil[2]
Crocodile oil % Human Skin Oil %
Palmitoleic acid (omega-7) 6.00 3.80
Palmitic acid 23.00 20.20
Myristic acid 0.94 2.10
Stearic acid 6.00 11.20
Oleic acid (omega-9) 39.00 30.80
Linoleic acid (omega-6) 20.00 15.10
lpha linoleic acid (omega-3) 1.37 0.30

According to Venter, the composition of Fatty acids in crocodile oil compared those found in human skin oil indicated that the Palmitoleic acid (6%), oleic acid (39%), and linoleic acid (20%) in crocodile oil showed higher percentage than in human skin oil.[2]

Evaluation of use

Skin condition

Crocodile oil was also used by traditional practitioners to treat skin conditions including microbial infections and inflammatory conditions. A research by the State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science in China describes the burn wound healing capabilities in crocodile oil indicated by decrease in wound closure time.[12] The study found crocodile oil has wound healing activity, and reduced scar formation in rats.[12] The fatty acid profile of crocodile oil indicates that the oil consists mainly of fatty acids that possess antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties.[3] A research provides scientific evidence of the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties of crocodile oil, compared the use of crocodile oil by traditional healers.[12] Their research focused on the study of burn ointment (COBO), topical Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) a compound made from natural mineral, crocodile oil, and extraction of five herbal medicines.

The fatty acid profile of crocodile oil indicates that the oil consists mainly of fatty acids that possess antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties (Kabara et al., 1972, Maroon and Bost, 2006). This study provides novel scientific evidence of antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties of crocodile oil, justifying its use by traditional healers. It highlighted the effects these properties may have when applied as oil or ointment on human skin. A clinical study tested the positive claims of crocodile oil in treatment of ageing skin in comparison to placebo lotion.[2] They found crocodile oil had "good stability over 6 months period", both lotions showed an increase in skin hydration.[2] In addition to skin hydration, Venter's research also illustrated crocodile oil lotion impact on skin scaliness and elasticity. The results indicated that there was no improvement in skin scaliness and elasticity.[2] Treatment of ageing skin has become very popular over the last decade. Ageing skin is characterised by wrinkles, sagging skin and decreased laxity. As a result, crocodile oil is used for skin repair to assist in skin quality and appearance as well as skin conditions due to its fatty acids and properties. According to Croc City, crocodile oil and crocodile oil containing products currently on the market, are used for treatment of dermatitis, scrapes, acne, razor bumps, bed sores, haemorrhoids, inflammation of arthritic conditions, treatment of discolouration, pigmentation of skin-like brown spots, freckles, menopausal darkening, treatment of dry, flaky, itchy and ageing skin, nappy rash, athlete's feet, jock-itch and irritation of head skin.[15] In terms of dermal toxicity testing, crocodile oil lotion is proven to be a safe product to use on skin.[2]

Commercial use

Crocodile oil colour

With the increase in commercial alligator farming in countries including Thailand, the United States, Australia, South Africa, and South East Asia, crocodile fat and oil became a commercial product that can be used in a number of ways such as medicine, skin care products, and as a feedstock for biodiesel. Natural oils are extensively used in cosmetics and as treatment for a growing number of conditions. According to Vermaak, the natural products industry is a multibillion-dollar industry and has grown enormously in the past few years.[16] Crocodile oil as an oil mainly containing fatty acids contribute to beneficial properties in cosmetics and personal care products. More specifically, crocodile oil is also used in the tanning industry.[17] The oil can range from about $US4 for a tube of crocodile lip balm to about $US104 for a large jar of pure crocodile oil balm.[18] Businesses consider the capability to convert crocodile fat to a marketable oil. They can capitalise on "first-mover advantage" due to crocodile oil benefits. Golden 8 Skincare is an Australian company, using crocodile oil as the main ingredient of its product.[19] The company's description of the product include "Packed full of Omegas 3,6 7 and 9 to help in the healing of skin conditions due to its Natural Moisturising Factor (NMF) Crocodile Oil helps prevents dermal irritation and regenerates the skin whilst providing the skin its daily dose of Omegas to produce clear, glowing, healthy skin."[19] The Asian skin care products use animal ingredients such as emu oil and snail slime, however, crocodile oil contains antimicrobial and anti-fungal properties.[20] As a result. crocodile oil lotions and other products derived from crocodile fat can be seen sold online for commercial use.

With reference to other uses of crocodile, the crocodile industry has traditionally focused on producing skins used in the production of high‐quality fashion. With the increase in production costs in South Africa, crocodile farmers have had to look at alternative means of increasing the profitability of their enterprise. Two major sources of income have been incorporated into the major component of skin production, namely tourism and meat production.[6] Presently, in South Africa, most of the crocodile meat produced is either exported or sold to the restaurant trade or used as unprocessed crocodile feed on the farm.[21] Specifically, in Australia, crocodile species are farmed for their skins and meat.[21] First grade Crocodile skins are highly sought after in Japan, France, Italy and the Asian countries.[22] In Australia, crocodile by-products of meat, feet, teeth and skulls are sold on the domestic market.[22] Feet and teeth are made into key-rings, jewellery and back scratchers and skulls are often mounted onto boards as display pieces.[22]

Criticism

Nile Crocodile, also known as Crocodylus niloticus

Critics of Crocodile farming mentions the use of crocodile oil as a contribution to the diminishing numbers of crocodile species.[23] Many species of crocodile are endangered such as the Siamese crocodile.[24] According to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, products made from endangered species can be legally traded after certification.[25] To add, skincare products range based on Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) oil. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora lists the Nile crocodile under Appendix II which means species are not threatened with extinction, but the collection, processing, domestic trading, and exporting of all crocodile products must be controlled. Over catching of this animal has led to the decline of this species in wild populations. Efforts are made to preserve the existing habitat of this species.[17] Crocodiles have been bred in farms since early 20th century, where Thai crocodile farming industry is currently the largest in the world.[25] Breeding this animal under captivity is a developing industry in some parts of the world.[20] The main commercial product from crocodiles is the skin, meat, and oil. Crocodile skin is used to produce premium leather and crocodile meat is considered a succulent white meat that is low in fat and high in protein.

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Williams, W. (1878). Journal of the Society of Arts. 27 (1357): 75–82. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Venter, Telanie (1985). Characterisation, toxicology and clinical effects of crocodile oil in skin products. OCLC 865165937.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Buthelezi, Sithabile; Southway, Colin; Govinden, Usha; Bodenstein, Johannes; du Toit, Karen (2012). "An investigation of the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities of crocodile oil". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 143 (1): 325–330. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2012.06.040. ISSN 0378-8741. PMID 22759702.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Smith, Grafton Elliot; Bryan, Cyril P.; Joachim, H. (1937). Ancient Egyptian Medicine. S.l.: The Papyrus Ebers.
  5. ↑ Pereira, Jonathan (2014). "Preface to Part II. Of Vol. II". The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. Cambridge University Press. pp. iii–vi. doi:10.1017/cbo9781107109889.001. ISBN 978-1-107-10988-9.
  6. 1 2 3 "What is Crocodile Oil?". tribeskincare.co.uk. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  7. 1 2 Elliot, Henry Miers (2013), Dowson, John (ed.), "Notice of Sir Henry M. Elliot", The History of India, as Told by its Own Historians, Cambridge University Press, pp. xxviii–xxix, doi:10.1017/cbo9781139507134.004, ISBN 978-1-139-50713-4
  8. 1 2 3 Watt, George; Watt, George (2014), "Preface to Vol. V", A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Cambridge University Press, pp. vi–vii, doi:10.1017/cbo9781107239180.001, ISBN 978-1-107-23918-0
  9. ↑ Eve, Paul (1964). "Books Received". Southern Medical Journal. P.C.Guieu. 57 (2): 234. doi:10.1097/00007611-196402000-00021. ISSN 0038-4348.
  10. ↑ Cameron, James (1886). "Oils and Varnishes". Nature. 34 (871): 213–214. Bibcode:1886Natur..34..213M. doi:10.1038/034213b0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4074044.
  11. ↑ Sanders, Richard (2018). "Chinese Ecological Agriculture: Shengtai nongye". Prospects for Sustainable Development in the Chinese Countryside. Routledge. pp. 66–76. doi:10.4324/9781315204864-6. ISBN 978-1-315-20486-4. S2CID 135162434.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Li, Hua-Liang; Deng, Yi-Tao; Zhang, Zi-Ran; Fu, Qi-Rui; Zheng, Ya-Hui; Cao, Xing-Mei; Nie, Jing; Fu, Li-Wen; Chen, Li-Ping; Xiong, You-Xiong; Shen, Dong-Yan (23 November 2016). "Evaluation of Effectiveness in a Novel Wound Healing Ointment-Crocodile Oil Burn Ointment". African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines. 14 (1): 62–72. doi:10.21010/ajtcam.v14i1.8. ISSN 0189-6016. PMC 5411886. PMID 28480384.
  13. 1 2 Higgins, Vaughan; Bryant, Melanie; Howell, Andrea; Battersby, Jane (2017). "Ordering adoption: Materiality, knowledge and farmer engagement with precision agriculture technologies". Journal of Rural Studies. 55: 193–202. doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.08.011. ISSN 0743-0167.
  14. ↑ Snyder, Trish. (2006). Alligator & crocodile rescue : changing the future for endangered wildlife. Firefly. ISBN 1-55297-920-2. OCLC 416506887.
  15. ↑ "Croc City Crocodile & Reptile Park". Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  16. ↑ Vermaak, I.; Kamatou, G.P.P.; Komane-Mofokeng, B.; Viljoen, A.M.; Beckett, K. (2011). "African seed oils of commercial importance — Cosmetic applications". South African Journal of Botany. 77 (4): 920–933. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2011.07.003. ISSN 0254-6299.
  17. 1 2 Kamath, Anjali (2009). Animals in Danger. Brainworks.
  18. ↑ "Move over, coconut oil! Crocodile oil is the latest skincare trend". TODAY.com. 29 October 2015. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  19. 1 2 "The Golden 8 Story". Golden 8 Skincare. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  20. 1 2 Christy, Ralph D., editor. Bernardo, Joselito C., editor. Hampel-Milagrosa, Aimée, editor. Fu, Lin, 1984– editor. (31 July 2018). Asian agribusiness management : case studies in growth, marketing, and upgrading strategies. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-323-313-3. OCLC 1029789547. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  21. 1 2 Hoffman, Louwrens C; Fisher, Peter P; Sales, James (2002). "Carcass and meat characteristics of the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus)". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 80 (3): 390–396. doi:10.1002/1097-0010(200002)80:3<390::aid-jsfa540>3.0.co;2-g.
  22. 1 2 3 "Crocodiles | AgriFutures Australia". Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  23. ↑ "Crocodile farms: is it cruel to keep these wild creatures captive?". The Independent. 5 October 2006. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  24. ↑ "Nearly 400 Rare Baby Crocodiles Saved from Becoming Purses". National Geographic News. 7 August 2016. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
  25. 1 2 Christy, Ralph D., editor. Bernardo, Joselito C., editor. Hampel-Milagrosa, Aimée, editor. Fu, Lin, 1984– editor. (2018). Asian agribusiness management : case studies in growth, marketing, and upgrading strategies. World Scientific Publishing Company Pte Limited. ISBN 978-981-323-314-0. OCLC 1050613726. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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