The sculpture of two women in bronze, Jag tänker på mig själv – Växjö ( 'I am thinking of myself - Växjö') by Marianne Lindberg De Geer, 2005, outside the art museum (Konsthallen) in Växjö, Sweden.[1][2] Its display of one thin woman and one fat woman is a demonstration against modern society's obsession with outwardly appearances. The sculpture has been a source of controversy in the town, with both statues being vandalized and repaired in 2006.[3]

The fat acceptance movement (also known by various other names, such as fat pride, fat empowerment, fat liberation, and fat activism) is a social movement which seeks to eliminate the social stigma of obesity.[4] Areas of contention include the aesthetic, legal, and medical approaches to fat people.

The modern fat acceptance movement began in the late 1960s. Besides its political role, the fat acceptance movement also constitutes a subculture which acts as a social group for its members.[5] The fat acceptance movement has been criticized for not adding value to the debate over human health, with some critics accusing the movement of "promoting a lifestyle that can have dire health consequences".[6][7][8]

History

The history of the fat acceptance movement can be dated back to 1967 when 500 people met in New York's Central Park to protest against anti-fat bias. Sociologist Charlotte Cooper has argued that the history of the fat activist movement is best understood in waves, similar to the feminist movement, with which she believes it is closely tied. Cooper believes that fat activists have suffered similar waves of activism followed by burnout, with activists in the following wave often unaware of the history of the movement, resulting in a lack of continuity.[9]

First wave

First wave activities consisted of isolated activists drawing attention to the dominant model of obesity and challenging it as only one of several possible models.

During the early part of the 20th century, obesity was seen as detrimental to the community, via decreasing human efficiency, and that obese people interfere with labor productivity in the coastal areas of the United States.[10] This kind of political climate was the background of the fat acceptance movement, which originated in the late 1960s. Like other social movements from this period, the fat acceptance movement, initially known as "Fat Pride", "Fat Power", or "Fat Liberation", often consisted of people acting in an impromptu fashion. A "fat-in" was staged in New York's Central Park in 1967.[11] Called by radio personality Steve Post, the "Fat-in" consisted of a group of 500 people eating, carrying signs and photographs of Twiggy (a model famous for her thin figure), and burning diet books.[12]

In 1967, Lew Louderback wrote an article in the Saturday Evening Post called "More People Should be FAT" in response to discrimination against his wife. The article led to a meeting between Louderback and William Fabrey, who went on to found the first organization for fat people and their supporters, originally named the 'National Association to Aid Fat Americans' and currently called the National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance (NAAFA). NAAFA was founded in America, in 1969, by Bill Fabrey in response to discrimination against his wife. He primarily intended it to campaign for fat rights, however, a reporter attending the 2001 NAAFA conference notes that few attendees were active in fat rights politics and that most women came to shop for fashion, wear it on the conference catwalk or to meet a potential partner.[13] Since 1991, Fabrey has worked as a director with the Council on Size and Weight Discrimination, specializing in the history of the size acceptance movement.[14]

In 1972 the feminist group The Fat Underground was formed.[15] It began as a radical chapter of NAAFA and spun off to become independent when NAAFA expressed concerns about its promotion of a stronger activist philosophy.[16] The FU were inspired by and, in some cases, members of the Radical Therapy Collective, a feminist group that believed that many psychological problems were caused by oppressive social institutions and practices. Founded by Sara Fishman (then Sara Aldebaran) and Judy Freespirit, the Fat Underground took issue with what they saw as a growing bias against obesity in the scientific community. They coined the saying, "a diet is a cure that doesn't work, for a disease that doesn't exist".[17] Shortly afterward, Fishman moved to Connecticut, where, along with Karen Scott-Jones, she founded the New Haven Fat Liberation Front, an organization similar to the Fat Underground in its scope and focus.[18] In 1983, the two groups collaborated to publish a seminal book in the field of fat activism, Shadow on a Tightrope, which collected several fat activist position papers initially distributed by the Fat Underground, as well as poems and essays from other writers.[19]

In 1979 Carole Shaw coined the term Big Beautiful Woman (BBW) and launched a fashion and lifestyle magazine of the same name aimed at plus-sized women.[20] The original print magazine ceased publication in May 2003, but continued in various online formats. The term "BBW" has become widely used to refer to any fat woman (sometimes in a derogatory way). Several other periodicals focusing on fashion and lifestyle for "fuller-figured" women were published in print from the early 1980s to the mid 2010s - see details within the media section of the wiki article for Plus-size model. From 1984 - 2000 Radiance: The Magazine for Large Women was published in print to "support women 'all sizes of large in living proud, full, active lives, at whatever weight, with self-love and self-respect."[21]

In the UK The London Fat Women's Group was formed, the first British fat activist group, and was active between approximately 1985 and 1989.[9]

Other first wave activities included the productions of zines such as Figure 8 and Fat!So? by Marilyn Wann. The latter went on to become a book of the same name.

Second wave

In the second wave, the fat acceptance movement became more widespread in the US and started to spread to other countries. Ideas from the movement began to appear in the mainstream. Publishers became more willing to publish fat acceptance themed literature.

The 1980s witnessed an increase in activist organizations, publications, and conferences.[22] In 1989 a group of people including actress Anne Zamberlan formed the first French organization for fat acceptance, Allegro fortissimo.[59]

Organizations began holding conferences and conventions, including NAAFA.

By the 1990s, input from the fat acceptance movement began to be incorporated into research papers by some members of the medical professions such as new anti-dieting programs and models of obesity management.[23]

Third wave

The fat acceptance movement has seen a diversification of projects during the third wave. Activities have addressed issues of both fat and race, class, sexuality, and other issues. Size discrimination has been increasingly addressed in the arts, as well.[24]

Campaigning themes

The fat acceptance movement argues that fat people are targets of hatred and discrimination.[25] In particular, advocates suggest obese women are subjected to more social pressure than obese men.[23] The movement argues that these attitudes comprise a fat phobic entrenched societal norm, evident in many social institutions, including the mass media, where fat people are often ridiculed[26][27] or held up as objects of pity.[28] Discrimination includes a lack of equal access to transportation and employment.[29] Members of the fat acceptance movement perceive negative societal attitudes as persistent, and as being based on the presumption that fatness reflects negatively on a person's character.[30][31] Fat activists push for change in societal, personal, and medical attitudes toward fat people. Fat acceptance organizations engage in public education about what they describe as myths concerning fat people.[32]

Discrimination

Fat people experience many different kinds of discrimination because of their weight.[4] This discrimination appears in healthcare, employment, education, personal relationships, and the media.[33][34] Fat individuals also argue clothing stores discriminate against them. For example, some women have complained that "one size fits all" stores, which offer a single size for each item, do not cater to those above a certain weight. Public transport has also been subject to criticism due to lack of inclusivity to fat people as seats and walkways are often too small to accommodate for them.[35]

Health

Fat activists argue that anti-fat stigma and aggressive diet promotion have led to an increase in psychological and physiological problems among fat people.[23] Concerns are also raised that modern culture's focus on weight loss does not have a foundation in scientific research, but instead is an example of using science as a means to control deviance, as a part of society's attempt to deal with something that it finds disturbing. Diet critics cite the high failure rate of permanent weight-loss attempts,[36] and the dangers of "yo-yo" weight fluctuations[37] and weight-loss surgeries.[38] Fat activists argue that the health issues of obesity and being overweight have been exaggerated or misrepresented, and that the health issues are used as a cover for cultural and aesthetic prejudices against fat.[39][22]

Proponents of fat acceptance maintain that people of all shapes and sizes can strive for fitness and physical health.[40][41][42] They believe health to be independent of body weight. Informed by this approach, psychologists who were unhappy with the treatment of fat people in the medical world initiated the Health at Every Size movement. It has five basic tenets: 1. Enhancing health, 2. Size and self-acceptance, 3. The pleasure of eating well, 4. The joy of movement, and 5. An end to weight bias.[43]

Some medical studies have challenged the 'healthy obesity' concept,[44][45][46][47] though the definitions of metabolically healthy obesity are not standardized across studies.[48]

Gender

Fat women

Documentary filmmaker Kira Nerusskaya released her film The BBW World: Under the Fat! In 2008.

The issues faced by fat women in society have been a central theme of the fat acceptance movement since its inception. Although the first organization, National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance, and the first book, Fat Power (1970), were both created by men, in each case they were responses to weight discrimination experienced by their wives. Women soon started campaigning on their behalf with the first feminist group, 'The Fat Underground', being formed in 1973. Issues addressed regarding women have included body image, and in particular the thin ideal and its effect on women. Critics say NAAFA, which opposes dieting and weight-loss surgery, is an apologist for an unhealthy lifestyle. But NAAFA says it does no such thing, that some people are just bigger and no less deserving of the same rights as everyone else.[49]

Fat men

The fat acceptance movement has primarily focused on a feminist model of patriarchal oppression of fat women, most clearly represented by the encouragement of women to diet. However, Sander L. Gilman argues that, until the 20th century, dieting has historically been a man's activity. He continues, "Obesity eats away at the idealized image of the masculine just as surely as it does the idealized image of the feminine."[50] William Banting was the author of an 1863 booklet called Letter On Corpulence[51] which modern diets have used as a model. Men respond to being overweight differently, (i.e., having a Body Mass Index of 25 or more), being half as likely as women to diet, a quarter as likely to undergo weightloss surgery and only a fifth as likely to report feeling shame about their weight.[52] Irmgard Tischner identifies this behavior as rooted in notions of masculinity that require disregard for healthcare: "Men do not have to care about their size or health, as they have women to care about those things for them".[53]

Some gay men have moved beyond disregard for size to fat acceptance and fat activism with movements like chub culture, which started as Girth & Mirth clubs in San Francisco in 1976[54] and the bear culture which fetishizes big, hairy men. Ganapati Durgadas argues that fat bisexual and gay men "are reminders of the feminine stigma with which heterosexism still tars queer men". In a comparison of queer fat positive zines, the lesbian-produced Fat Girl was found to have political debate content absent from gay male orientated zines such as Bulk Male and Big Ad. Joel Barraquiel Tan comments: "If fat is a feminist issue, then fat or heft is a fetishized one for gay men. Gay men tend to sexualize difference, where lesbians have historically politicized it."[55]

A fat heterosexual man is known as a "Big Handsome Man", in counterpart to a Big Beautiful Woman. Like some fat and gay men, BHMs have sexualized their difference and receive validation of this identity from BBWs or straight women known as "Female Fat Admirers".[56]

Legislation

In the 1980s fat people in the United States began seeking legal redress for discrimination based on weight, primarily in the workplace but also for being denied access to, or treated differently in regards to, services or entertainment. The results of these cases have varied considerably, although in some instances the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) has been successfully used to argue cases of discrimination against fat people.[57] Roth and Solovay argue that, as with transgender people, a major cause for the variation in success is the extent to which litigants are apologetic for their size (with more apologetic plaintiffs finding more success):

What is the difference between a million-dollar weight case award and a losing case? Like the difference between many winning and losing transgender cases, it's all about the attitude. Does the claimant's attitude and experience about weight/gender reinforce or challenge dominant stereotypes? Winning cases generally adopt a legal posture that reinforces social prejudices. Cases that challenge societal prejudices generally lose.[58]

The Americans with Disabilities Act continues to be used as there is no USA federal law against weight discrimination; however, the state of Michigan has passed a law against weight discrimination. The cities of Washington, D.C., San Francisco (2000), Santa Cruz, Binghamton, Urbana (1990s), New York,[59] and Madison (1970s) have also passed laws prohibiting weight discrimination.[60] In the cities that have a weight discrimination law, it is rare for more than one case a year to be brought, except for San Francisco which may have as many as six. Opinions amongst city enforcement workers vary as to why the prosecution numbers are so low, although they all suggested that both overweight people and employers were unaware of the protective legislation and it was also noted that the cities with anti-weight discrimination laws tended to be liberal college towns.[61]

However, not all legal changes have protected the rights of fat people. Despite recommendations from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to the contrary, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit has decided that fat people will only qualify as disabled if it can be proved that their weight is caused by an underlying condition, supporting the concept that being obese is not inherently a disability.[58]

Other countries besides the United States have considered legislation to protect the rights of fat people. In the UK an All-Party Parliamentary Group published a report in 2012 called Reflections on Body Image that found that one in five British people had been victimized because of their weight. The report recommended that Members of Parliament investigated putting "appearance-based discrimination" under the same legal basis as sexual or racial discrimination via the Equality Act 2010 which makes it illegal to harass, victimize or discriminate against anyone in the workplace based on several named categories, including size or weight.[62] The Equality Act came into force on 1 October 2010, it brings together over 116 separate pieces of legislation into one single Act. The Act provides a legal framework to protect the rights of individuals and advance equality of opportunity for all.[63]

Fat studies

There has also been an emerging body of academic studies called Fat Studies. Marilyn Wann argues that fat studies moved beyond being an individual endeavor to being a field of study with the 2004 conference Fat Attitudes: An Examination of an American Subculture and the Representation of the Female Body.[5] The American Popular Culture Association regularly includes panels on the subject. In many colleges, student groups with a fat activist agenda have emerged, including Hampshire, Smith, and Antioch. Fat studies are now available as an interdisciplinary course of study at some colleges, taking a similar approach to other identity studies such as women's studies, queer studies, and African American studies.[64] As of 2011, there were two Australian courses and ten American courses that were primarily focussed on fat studies or Health at Every Size, and numerous other courses that had some fat acceptance content.[65] Taylor & Francis publish an online Fat Studies journal.[66] The first national Fat Studies seminar was held at York in May 2008, leading to the 2009 publication Fat Studies in the UK, edited by Corinna Tomrley and Ann Kalosky Naylor.[67]

Division within the movement

The fat acceptance movement has been divided in its response to proposed legislation defining morbidly obese people as disabled. NAAFA board member Peggy Howell says: "There's a lot of conflict in the size acceptance community over this. I don't consider myself disabled, and some people don't like 'fat' being considered a disability."[68] An example of the positive perspective of obesity being classified as a disability in wider society is noted by one researcher: "She makes a point to tell me how impressed she is with the way many do make quiet and polite accommodations for her."[69]

Women are particularly active within the fat acceptance movement and membership of fat acceptance organizations is dominated by middle-class women in the heaviest 1–2% of the population.[70] Members have criticized the lack of representation in the movement from men, people of color, and people of lower socioeconomic status.[71]

Criticism

The fat acceptance movement has been criticized from several perspectives. The primary criticism is that fat acceptance ignores studies that have shown health issues to be linked to obesity and hence, encourages an unhealthy lifestyle.[72]

In 2008 Lily-Rygh Glen, a writer, musician, and former fat acceptance activist, interviewed multiple women who claimed to be rejected by their peers within the movement and labeled "traitors" when they changed their diets.[73]

Medical criticism

There is a considerable amount of evidence that being obese is connected to increased all-cause mortality and diseases,[74] and significant weight loss (>10%), using a variety of diets, improves or reverses metabolic syndromes and other health outcomes associated with obesity.[75][76][77][78]

Barry Franklin, director of a cardio rehab facility, stated: "I don't want to take on any specific organization but... A social movement that would suggest health at any size in many respects can be misleading."[79] However, Franklin also agrees that fit people who are obese have cardiovascular mortality rates that are lower than thin, unfit people, and proponents of the fat acceptance movement argue that people of all shapes and sizes can choose behaviors that support their fitness and physical health.[79] The fat acceptance movement has been criticized for not adding value to the debate over human health, with some critics accusing the movement of "promoting a lifestyle that can have dire health consequences".[6][80][81]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ↑ "Bronskvinnorna" [The Bronze Women]. Växjö Kommun (in Swedish). Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  2. ↑ "Obesity over time". OpenLearn.
  3. ↑ Roxvall, Anna (30 November 2006). "Skulpturer rör upp känslor i Växjö". Svenska Dagbladet (in Swedish). ISSN 1101-2412. Retrieved 2020-07-25.
  4. 1 2 Puhl, Rebecca M.; Heuer, Chelsea A. (2009-05-01). "The Stigma of Obesity: A Review and Update". Obesity. 17 (5): 941–964. doi:10.1038/oby.2008.636. ISSN 1930-739X. PMID 19165161. S2CID 152352.
  5. 1 2 Wann, Marilyn (2009). "Foreword: Fat Studies: An Invitation to Revolution". In Esther Rothblum, Sondra Solovay (ed.). The Fat Studies Reader. New York University Press. p. xi. ISBN 9780814776407. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
  6. 1 2 "Fat Acceptance: 'Young, Fat and Fabulous' Say No to Yo-Yo Diets". ABC. 2009-06-15. Retrieved July 23, 2012.
  7. ↑ "In the Fatosphere, Big Is In, or at Least Accepted". The New York Times. 2008-01-22. Retrieved July 22, 2012.
  8. ↑ "Is the fat acceptance movement bad for our health?". CNN. Archived from the original on July 23, 2012. Retrieved July 23, 2012.
  9. 1 2 Cooper, Charlotte. "What's Fat Activism?" (PDF). University of Limerick. Retrieved 2017-09-25.
  10. ↑ Chang, V. W.; Christakis, N. A. (2002). "Medical modeling of obesity: a transition from action to experience in a 20th century American medical textbook". Sociology of Health & Illness. 24 (2): 151–177. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.174.1256. doi:10.1111/1467-9566.00289.
  11. ↑ "Curves Have Their Day in Park; 500 at a 'Fat-in' Call for Obesity". The New York Times. June 5, 1967. p. 54.
  12. ↑ Fletcher, Dan (2009-07-31). "The Fat-Acceptance Movement". Time. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009.
  13. ↑ Saggy, Abigail (2013). What's Wrong With Fat?. Oxford University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0199857081.
  14. ↑ "Council Directors and Project Managers". Council on Size & Weight Discrimination. Retrieved 2017-09-25.
  15. ↑ Fletcher, Dan (31 July 2009). "The Fat-Acceptance Movement". Time.
  16. ↑ "Life In The Fat Underground by Sara Fishman". Radiancemagazine.com. Retrieved 2011-12-31.
  17. ↑ The Fat Underground Archived 2002-12-26 at the Wayback Machine, largesse.net
  18. ↑ Swatek, Randall (March 12, 1978). "Fat Times in New Haven". New York Times. Retrieved May 31, 2022.
  19. ↑ Simic, Zora (2015). "Far as a Feminist Issue: A History". In Caroline Walters (ed.). Fat Sex: New Directions in Theory and Activism. Helen Hester. Ashgate. p. 28ff. ISBN 9781472432568.
  20. ↑ "BBW Past and Present". Big Beautiful Woman Magazine. 2014-08-15. Retrieved 2017-09-25.
  21. ↑ Ansfield, Alice (ed.). "About Radiance". Radiance: The Magazine for Large Women (Print Magazine). Retrieved July 21, 2022.
  22. 1 2 "From New York to Instagram: The history of the body positivity movement". BBC Bitesize. Retrieved 2021-03-29.
  23. 1 2 3 B.E., Robinson; J.G., Bacon (1996). "The "If Only I Were Thin..." Treatment Program: Decreasing the Stigmatizing Effects of Fatness". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 27 (2): 175–183. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.27.2.175. ISSN 0735-7028. OCLC 8996897.
  24. ↑ "Tantalising Glimpses (2020)". LADA Live Art Development Agency. Retrieved 2021-03-29.
  25. ↑ Jaffa, Karen (2008). Forming Fat Identities. pp. 169–70. ISBN 9780549889717.
  26. ↑ "Council on Size and Weight Discrimination – Weight Discrimination on Television". Cswd.org. Archived from the original on 2011-12-20. Retrieved 2011-12-31.
  27. ↑ Greenberg, B. S.; et al. (2003). "Portrayals of overweight and obese individuals on commercial television". American Journal of Public Health. 93 (8): 1342–8. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.530.9981. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.8.1342. PMC 1447967. PMID 12893625.
  28. ↑ Jennings, Laura Lynn (2008). Place Settings: Social Aspects of the Body Image/Eating Relationship. p. 9. ISBN 978-0549641261.
  29. ↑ Maranto, C. L.; Stenoien, A. F. (2000). "Weight Discrimination: A Multidisciplinary Analysis". Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal. 12: 9–24. doi:10.1023/A:1007712500496. S2CID 142845902.
  30. ↑ Murray, S. (2005). "(Un/Be)Coming Out? Rethinking Fat Politics". Social Semiotics. 15 (2): 153–163. doi:10.1080/10350330500154667. S2CID 145102272.
  31. ↑ Puhl, R.; Brownell, D. (Dec 2001). "Bias, discrimination, and obesity". Obesity Research. 9 (12): 788–805. doi:10.1038/oby.2001.108. ISSN 1071-7323. PMID 11743063.
  32. ↑ Hemmenway, Carrie. "Dispelling common myths about fat persons". NAAFA. Retrieved 2017-09-25.
  33. ↑ Tomiyama, A. (May–June 2013). "If Shaming People Reduced Obesity, There Would Be No Fat People" (PDF). The Hastings Center Report. 43 (3): 4–5. doi:10.1002/hast.166. PMID 23650055.
  34. ↑ "National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance" (PDF). naafaonline.com. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
  35. ↑ Pitter, Jay (2015-08-11). "Weighing In: Fat Discrimination on Public Transit". Spacing Toronto. Retrieved 2023-06-20.
  36. ↑ Bacon, Linda; Aphramor, Lucy (2011-01-24). "Weight Science: Evaluating the Evidence for a Paradigm Shift". Nutrition Journal. 10 (1): 9. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-10-9. ISSN 1475-2891. PMC 3041737. PMID 21261939.
  37. ↑ Coon, Dennis (2008). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behaviour. Cengage Learning. p. 328. ISBN 978-0495599111.
  38. ↑ Kelly, Evelyn B. (2006-01-01). Obesity. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 138. ISBN 978-0313334603. dangers of bariatric surgery.
  39. ↑ Hobbes, Michael. "Everything You Know About Obesity Is Wrong". HuffPost. Retrieved 2021-03-29.
  40. ↑ Ikeda, J. P.; et al. (1999). "A Commentary on the New Obesity Guidelines from NIH". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 99 (8): 918–9. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(99)00218-7. PMID 10450304.
  41. ↑ "ISAA's Respect | Health Initiative". Size-acceptance.org. Retrieved 2011-12-31.
  42. ↑ "Physical Fitness" (PDF). NAAFA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-20.
  43. ↑ Burgard, Deb (2009), "What Is "Health at Every Size"?", in Solovay, Sandra; Wann, Marilyn (eds.), The Fat Studies Reader, New York University Press, pp. 42–49, ISBN 978-0-8147-7630-8
  44. ↑ "Is Healthy Obesity a Myth?". nlm.nih.gov. 30 April 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
  45. ↑ "Dispelling the myth of 'healthy obesity'". British Heart Foundation. 1 May 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
  46. ↑ Kramer, CK; Zinman, B; Retnakaran, R (Dec 3, 2013). "Are metabolically healthy overweight and obesity benign conditions?: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Ann Intern Med. 159 (11): 758–69. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-159-11-201312030-00008. PMID 24297192. S2CID 9431877.
  47. ↑ Roberson, Lara L; et al. (Jan 8, 2014). "Beyond BMI: The "Metabolically healthy obese" phenotype & its association with clinical/subclinical cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality – a systematic review". BMC Public Health. 14 (1): 14. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-14. PMC 3890499. PMID 24400816.
  48. ↑ Blüher, S; Schwarz, P (Jun 19, 2014). "Metabolically healthy obesity from childhood to adulthood — Does weight status alone matter?". Metabolism. 14 (9): 1084–92. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2014.06.009. PMID 25038727.
  49. ↑ Fletcher, Dan (2009-07-31). "A Brief History of the Fat-Acceptance Movement". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 2020-03-20.
  50. ↑ Gilman, Sander L. (2004). Fat Boys: A Slim Book. University of Nebraska. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-0803221833. fat men.
  51. ↑ Banting, William (2005). Letter on Corpulance. Cosimo, Inc. ISBN 9781596050853.
  52. ↑ Oliver, J. Eric (2005). Fat Politics: The Real Story Behind America's Obesity Epidemic. Oxford University Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0195347029.
  53. ↑ Tischner, Irmgard (2013). Fat Lives: A Feminist Psychological Exploration. Routledge. pp. 105–6. ISBN 978-0415680943.
  54. ↑ Suresha, Ron (2016-02-07). "The Birth of Girth and Mirth: an interview with Reed Wilgoren".
  55. ↑ LeBesco, Kathleen (2004). Revolting Bodies? The Struggle To Redefine Fat Identity. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-1558494299.
  56. ↑ Monaghan, Lee F. (2008). Men and the War on Obesity: A Sociological Study. Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 978-0415407120.
  57. ↑ Theran, Elizabeth E. (2005). Legal Theory on Weight Discriminationin Weight Bias: Nature, Consequences, And Remedies. Guildford Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-1593851996.
  58. 1 2 Dylan Roth and, Sandra Solovay (2009). No Apology: Shared Struggles in Fat and Transgender Law in Fat Studies Reader. NYU Press. pp. 168–170. ISBN 9780814776407.
  59. ↑ < NYC banned weightr discrimination for employmenht and housing
  60. ↑ "Weight Discrimination Laws". NAAFA Online. NAAFA. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  61. ↑ "Weight Bias Laws: Tipping the Scales Against Prejudice?". Minnesota Dept. Human Rights. Archived from the original on 2014-04-24.
  62. ↑ Adams, Stephen (2017-09-25). "Calling someone 'fatty' could become a hate crime". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2012-05-30.
  63. ↑ "What is the Equality Act? | Equality and Human Rights Commission". www.equalityhumanrights.com. Retrieved 2020-03-20.
  64. ↑ Binder, Eve (3 November 2010). "'Fat Studies' Go to College". The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast Company.
  65. ↑ Watkins, Patti Lou. "Teaching Fat Studies From Conception to Reception". Taylor & Francis. Oregon State University.
  66. ↑ "Fat Studies". Taylor & Francis. Retrieved 2017-09-25.
  67. ↑ "Fat Studies in the UK". Raw Nerve. Books. Archived from the original on 2012-03-17.
  68. ↑ Wilkie, Christina (2012). "Obesity Discrimination on the Job Provokes Dispute Over Best Remedy". Huffing ton Post.
  69. ↑ Erdman Farrell, Amy (2011). Fat Shame:!Stigma and the Fat Body in American Culture. NYU Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0814727683. Men fat acceptance.
  70. ↑ Saguy, Abigail (2013). What's Wrong with Fat?. Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0199857081.
  71. ↑ Webb, Cary (4 January 2014). "Why I'm Over The Size Acceptance Movement or Hey, SA, What Have You Done For Me Lately?". XOJane.com. XOJANE. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  72. ↑ Worth, Tammy (6 January 2010). "Is the fat acceptance movement bad for our health?". CNN. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
  73. ↑ Lily-Rygh Glen, "Big Trouble: Are Eating Disorders the Lavender Menace of the Fat Acceptance Movement", Bitch Media, January 1, 2008
  74. ↑ Gorgievska-Sukarovska, B.; Lipozencić, J.; Susac, A. (2008). "Obesity and allergic diseases". Acta Dermatovenerologica Croatica. 16 (4): 231–235. PMID 19111150.
  75. ↑ Jensen, MD; Ryan, DH; Apovian, CM; Ard, JD; Comuzzie, AG; Donato, KA; Hu, FB; Hubbard, VS; Jakicic, JM; Kushner, RF; Loria, CM; Millen, BE; Nonas, CA; Pi-Sunyer, FX; Stevens, J; Stevens, VJ; Wadden, TA; Wolfe, BM; Yanovski, SZ; Jordan, HS; Kendall, KA; Lux, LJ; Mentor-Marcel, R; Morgan, LC; Trisolini, MG; Wnek, J; Anderson, JL; Halperin, JL; Albert, NM; Bozkurt, B; Brindis, RG; Curtis, LH; DeMets, D; Hochman, JS; Kovacs, RJ; Ohman, EM; Pressler, SJ; Sellke, FW; Shen, WK; Smith SC, Jr; Tomaselli, GF; American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice, Guidelines.; Obesity, Society. (24 June 2014). "2013 AHA/ACC/TOS guideline for the management of overweight and obesity in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and The Obesity Society". Circulation (Professional society guideline). 129 (25 Suppl 2): S102-38. doi:10.1161/01.cir.0000437739.71477.ee. PMC 5819889. PMID 24222017.
  76. ↑ Thom, G; Lean, M (May 2017). "Is There an Optimal Diet for Weight Management and Metabolic Health?" (PDF). Gastroenterology (Review). 152 (7): 1739–1751. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2017.01.056. PMID 28214525.
  77. ↑ Kuchkuntla, AR; Limketkai, B; Nanda, S; Hurt, RT; Mundi, MS (December 2018). "Fad Diets: Hype or Hope?". Current Nutrition Reports (Review). 7 (4): 310–323. doi:10.1007/s13668-018-0242-1. PMID 30168044. S2CID 52132504.
  78. ↑ "Obesity and overweight". World Health Organization. 2018.
  79. 1 2 Worth, Tammy. "Is the Fat Acceptance Movement Bad for Our Health?". CNN. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
  80. ↑ "In the Fatosphere, Big Is In, or at Least Accepted". The New York Times. 2008-01-22. Retrieved July 22, 2012.
  81. ↑ "Is the fat acceptance movement bad for our health?". CNN. Archived from the original on July 23, 2012. Retrieved July 23, 2012.

Sources

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.