Fumane Cave
Grotta di Fumane
Entrance to the Fumane cave
LocationNear the town of Fumane
RegionProvince of Verona, Italy
Area60m2
History
MaterialSandstone
CulturesAurignacian, Uluzzian, Mousterian
Associated withNeanderthals, Early modern humans
Site notes
Excavation dates1964, 1982, 1988-present
Public accessYes
Websitehttp://grottadifumane.eu/en/

Fumane Cave (Italian: Grotta di Fumane) is a dolomite cave in the Fumane Valley, which was formed in the Neogene period. The cave contains rich evidence of three prehistoric hominid cultures: Mousterian, Uluzzian and Aurignacian. Additionally, the cave has some of the oldest cave art that has been discovered in Europe.

Although the archaeological site has been known since the 19th century, the first excavation took place in 1965. Systematic excavations have been almost continuously undertaken since 1988.

Dating

The Uluzzian layer was dated with both the uranium–thorium dating and the electron spin resonance dating. Five herbivore teeth were used in this combined dating, returning a date between 38+/-6 thousand and 49+/-6 thousand BP. One flint fragment, and the sediment around it, were dated through thermoluminescence, giving an age of 50 thousand +/- 8 000 BP. Radiocarbon dating was used on charred wood and charcoal samples, returning a set of dates for the Uluzzian and the Mousterian. Calibrated dates place the end of Mousterian at around 44 000 BP, the Uluzzian at between 44 and 42 000 BP, and the proto-Aurignacian phase at 41-38 000 BP.[1][2]

Stratigraphy

Three cultures could be differentiated across eleven layers: Aurignacian, including Proto-aurignacian, which are the oldest early modern human cultures in Europe. The transitional Uluzzian, and the middle Paleolithic Mousterian cultures are connected with Neanderthals.[3] A total of 451 cores, 16 373 flakes and 1527 stone tools were found across the various layers.[4]

The excavation site of Fumane cave

Aurignacian

Early stage and exhausted cores from the proto-Aurignacian layer show core reduction techniques which aimed at manufacturing predetermined products. The first technique used linear and consecutive knapping to obtain blades and bladelets with sub-parallel edges. The second technique used alternate knapping progression to produce slender bladelets with a convergent shape. These techniques can be found in other proto-Aurignacian European sites as well.[5] The Fumane cave finds support the idea that proto-Aurignacian is consistent across its geographic distribution.[6]

Retouched proto-Aurignacian bladelets from Fumane

The proto-Aurignacian and Aurignacian assemblage were dominated by ibex finds. 43% at D3 layer, 35.5% at D6 layer, 43.9% at A1 layer, with 18.4% of red deer finds, and 49.5% at A2-A2R layer, with 18.8% of red deer finds.[7]

Uluzzian

The older stone tools were created using the Levallois technique, while the newer flakes and cores were made using the centripetal method. Blades and bladelets were recorded in the Uluzzian layer.[8] In the initial portion of the Uluzzian phase, it was a flake-dominated industry. Sidescrapers and points were the most represented stone tool, with the Levallois technique being the most used method of their production. Backed knives and upper Paleolithic tools become dominant in the later phase of the culture.[9]

Uluzzian is only present in the A3 layer, and the faunal assemblage is dominated by two species: red deer at 29.5% and ibex at 20.3%.[3]

Mousterian

The Levallois technique was the exclusive flaking technique used. Most of the artifacts found here are well preserved, devoid of abrasions, and slightly affected by patina.[8]

The Mousterian is a culture exclusively connected with Neanderthals. As their aptitude for symbolic behavior is often disputed,[10] the find of a fragmentary ochered fossile Aspa marginata shell is of particular interest, as pigment use is suggestive of symbolism. The shell is dated to 47.6-45 000 BP. The shell was brought to the cave from a great distance, of over 100 km. Microscopic analysis revealed a dark red substance, identified as hematite, was found smeared across the outer surface of the shell. It was likely worn as a pendant.[11] Bone working is another criterion often mentioned for behavioral modernity. In a late Mousterian layer, a retouched bone shaft was found, modified through direct percussion. This transfer of knowledge from flint knapping usually implies a lack of raw lithic material, which wasn't the case for the Fumane Neanderthals.[12]

The Moustarian faunal assemblage is almost evenly split between roe deer and red deer finds at A4, A9, A10 and A11 layers, with red deer being dominant in the A5-A6 layers at 70.3%.[3] A number of avian bones found in the final Mousterian layer show signs of modification (cuts, scrapes, peeling), which do not serve feeding or utilitarian purposes. It seems that Neanderthals removed large feathers from a number of different birds, which could be linked to some form of symbolic behavior.[13] The birds were also used for subsistence, which testifies to the Neanderthal ability to diversify their diet.[14]

Cave paintings

Stone slabs bearing images of a four-legged animal and a half-human, half-animal figure were discovered during the excavation of the cave. Three more figures could be seen on the slabs, but couldn't be identified due to their bad preservation. As they were embedded in the sediment, they could be dated to between 32 and 36 500 BP, which would make them contemporary to the Chauvet Cave paintings.[15]

Human remains

During the excavations conducted between 1989 and 2011, four human teeth were found. Three in the Mousterian layers, and one in the Uluzzian layer. Two of the three found in the Mousterian layer can be identified as Neanderthal. The remaining Mousterian tooth cannot be definitely identified due to incisal wear, while the Uluzzian tooth cannot be identified as only a fragment of it was found. Anonther tooth was found in the proto-Aurignacian layer, but is yet to be published.[16] All of them were deciduous teeth, two of them belonging to six-year olds, and one of them to a child aged 10–11 years old.[17] One of the Fumane individuals, "Fumane 2" has been directly dated to circa 40,000 BP.[18]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Peresani, Marco; Cremaschi, Mauro; Ferraro, Francesca; Falgueres, Christophe; Bahain, Jean-Jacques; Gruppioni, Giulia; Sibilia, Emanuela; Quarta, Gianluca; Calcagnile, Lucio; Dolo, Jean-Michel (2008). "Age of the final Middle Palaeolithic and Uluzzian levels at Fumane Cave, Northern Italy, using 14C, ESR, 234U/230Th and thermoluminescence methods". Journal of Archaeological Science. 35 (11): 2986–2996. Bibcode:2008JArSc..35.2986P. doi:10.1016/J.JAS.2008.06.013. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
  2. ↑ Higham, Thomas; Brock, Fiona; Peresani, Marco; Broglio, Alberto; Wood, Rachel; Douka, Katerina (June 2009). "Problems with radiocarbon dating the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in Italy" (PDF). Quaternary Science Reviews. 28 (13–14): 1257–1267. Bibcode:2009QSRv...28.1257H. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.12.018. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
  3. 1 2 3 Sinet-Mathiot, Virginie; Smith, Geoff M.; Romandini, Matteo; Wilcke, Arndt; Peresani, Marco; Hublin, Jean-Jacques; Welker, Frido (26 August 2019). "Combining ZooMS and zooarchaeology to study Late Pleistocene hominin behaviour at Fumane (Italy)" (PDF). Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 3. Bibcode:2019NatSR...912350S. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-48706-z. PMC 6710433. PMID 31451791. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
  4. ↑ Caricola, Isabella; Zupancich, Andrea; Moscone, Daniele; Mutri, Giuseppina; Falcucci, Armando; Duches, Rossella; Peresani, Marco; Cristiani, Emanuela (December 2018). "An integrated method for understanding the function of macro-lithic tools. Use wear, 3D and spatial analyses of an Early Upper Palaeolithic assemblage from North Eastern Italy". PLOS ONE. 247 (12): 129. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1307773C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207773. PMC 6291187. PMID 30540784.
  5. ↑ Peresani, Marco; Falcucci, Armando (February 2018). "Protoaurignacian Core Reduction Procedures: Blade and Bladelet Technologies at Fumane Cave". Lithic Technology. 43 (2): 125–140. doi:10.1080/01977261.2018.1439681. S2CID 135014755. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
  6. ↑ Falcucci, Armando; Conard, Nicholas J.; Peresani, Marco (2017). "A critical assessment of the Protoaurignacian lithic technology at Fumane Cave and its implications for the definition of the earliest Aurignacian". PLOS ONE. 12 (12): e0189241. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1289241F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0189241. PMC 5720803. PMID 29216284.
  7. ↑ Tagliacozzo, Antonio; Romandini, Matteo; Fiore, Ivana; Gala, Monica; Peresani, Marco (2013). "Animal Exploitation Strategies during the Uluzzian at Grotta di Fumane (Verona, Italy)". In Clark, Jamie L.; Speth, John D. (eds.). Zooarchaeology and Modern Human Origins. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-6765-2.
  8. 1 2 Peresani, Marco (9 January 2012). "Fifty thousand years of flint knapping and tool shaping across the Mousterian and Uluzzian sequence of Fumane cave". Quaternary International. 247: 125–150. Bibcode:2012QuInt.247..125P. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.02.006. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
  9. ↑ Peresani, Marco; Cristiani, Emanuela; Romandini, Matteo (February 2016). "The Uluzzian technology of Grotta di Fumane and its implication for reconstructing cultural dynamics in the Middle–Upper Palaeolithic transition of Western Eurasia". Journal of Human Evolution. 91: 36–56. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.10.012. hdl:11392/2335175. PMID 26852812. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
  10. ↑ Mellars, Paul (23 November 2010). "Neanderthal symbolism and ornament manufacture: The bursting of a bubble?" (PDF). PNAS. 107 (47): 20147–20148. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10720147M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1014588107. PMC 2996706. PMID 21078972. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
  11. ↑ Peresani, Marco; Vanhaeren, Marian; Quaggiotto, Ermanno; Queffelec, Alain; d’Errico, Francesco (2013). "An Ochered Fossil Marine Shell From the Mousterian of Fumane Cave, Italy". PLOS ONE. 8 (7): e68572. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...868572P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068572. PMC 3707824. PMID 23874677. S2CID 559046.
  12. ↑ Romandini, Matteo; Cristiani, Emanuela; Peresani, Marco (January 2015). "A retouched bone shaft from the Late Mousterian at Fumane cave (Italy). Technological, experimental and micro-wear analysis". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 14 (1): 63–72. Bibcode:2015CRPal..14...63R. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2014.08.001. hdl:11392/2212612. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
  13. ↑ Peresani, Marco; Fiore, Ivana; Gala, Monica; Romandini, Matteo; Tagliacozzo, Antonio (8 March 2011). "Late Neandertals and the intentional removal of feathers as evidenced from bird bone taphonomy at Fumane Cave 44 ky B.P., Italy" (PDF). PNAS. 108 (10): 3888–3893. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.3888P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1016212108. PMC 3054018. PMID 21368129. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
  14. ↑ Fiore, Ivana; Gala, Monica; Romandini, Matteo; Cocca, Enzo; Tagliacozzo, Antonio; Peresani, Marco (9 November 2016). "From feathers to food: Reconstructing the complete exploitation of avifaunal resources by Neanderthals at Fumane cave, unit A9". Quaternary International. 421: 134–153. Bibcode:2016QuInt.421..134F. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.11.142. Retrieved 29 January 2021.
  15. ↑ Balter, Michael (20 Oct 2000). "Paintings in Italian Cave May Be Oldest Yet". Science. 290 (5491): 419–421. doi:10.1126/science.290.5491.419. PMID 17844275. S2CID 36611961. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
  16. ↑ Benazzi, Stefano; Bailey, Shara E.; Peresani, Marco; Mannino, Marcello A.; Romandini, Matteo; Richards, Michael P.; Hublin, Jean-Jacques (May 2014). "Middle Paleolithic and Uluzzian human remains from Fumane Cave, Italy". Journal of Human Evolution. 70: 61–68. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.03.001. PMID 24666601. Retrieved 29 January 2021.
  17. ↑ Moorrees, Coenraad F. A.; Fanning, Elizabeth A.; Hunt Jr., Edward E. (June 1963). "Formation and resorption of three deciduous teeth in children". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 21 (2): 205–213. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330210212. PMID 14110696. Retrieved 29 January 2021.
  18. ↑ Prüfer, Kay; Posth, Cosimo (June 2021). "A genome sequence from a modern human skull over 45,000 years old from Zlatý kůň in Czechia". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 5 (6): 820–825. doi:10.1038/s41559-021-01443-x. ISSN 2397-334X. PMC 8175239. PMID 33828249.
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