Hiraab Imamate
Saldanadda Hiraab (Somali)
Early 17th century–7 January 1889
Flag of Hiraab
Flag
Extent of the Hiraab Imamate after completely expelling the Ajuran Sultanate
Extent of the Hiraab Imamate after completely expelling the Ajuran Sultanate
CapitalMogadishu
Common languages
Religion
Sunni Islam (Sufi)
GovernmentMonarchy
Imam Yacquub 
History 
• Established
Early 17th century
• Disestablished
7 January 1889
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Ajuran Sultanate
Sultanate of the Geledi
Sultanate of Hobyo
Italian Somaliland
Today part ofSomalia

The Hiraab Imamate (Somali: Saldanadda Hiraab), also known as the Yacquubi Dynasty, was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 16th century till the 19th century until it was incorporated into Italian Somaliland. The Imamate was governed by the Abgaal Yacquub Dynasty. It was founded by Imam Omar who successfully rebelled and defeated the Ajuran and established an independent kingdom.[1]

History

Establishment

Late 17th Century Mogadishu

The Hiraab Imamate was the successor state of the Ajuran Sultanate. The reason for their rebellion was the Ajuran rulers, in the end, became extremely prideful, neglected the sharia, and imposed a heavy taxation on their subjects which was the main reason for the rebellion.[2]

The first clan to ever challenge the Ajuuraan rulers was the Darandoolle clan a section of Hiraab.

The Ajuuraan had decreed: “At the wells in our territory, the people known as Darandoolle and the other Hiraab cannot water their herds by day, but only at night.” … Then all the Darandoolle gathered in one place. The leaders decided to make war on the Ajuuraan. They found the imam of the Ajuuraan seated on a rock near a well called Ceel Cawl. They killed him with a sword. As they struck him with the sword, they split his body together with the rock on which he was seated. He died immediately and the Ajuuraan migrated out of the country. In another variation of the story, a young Darandoolle warrior was born with a gold ring on his finger, a sign of his future preeminence. The Darandoolle then rallied around their young leader, who eventually assumed the title of Imam of the Hiraab and took up residence in Muqdisho.[3]

After the successful rebellion of the Darandoolle, other clans began to challenge Ajuuraan hegemony. Along the upper and middle reaches of the Shabelle valley, the pastoral Gaaljecel, Baadicade and Xawaadle waged several unsuccessful campaigns before they eventually united to drive the Ajuuraan out of the area. The Habar Gidir and Duduble also drove the Ajuuraan out of Galgaduud and Mudug provinces after a hard-fought battle.[4]

By 1700, the Hiraab and other clans occupied a large territory stretching the interior from the Shabelle valley to the arid lands of Mudug and to the coastal areas of Mogadishu towards Hobyo. After the immediate fall of the Ajuuraan, the Hiraab established an independent rule for at least two centuries.[5]

Called Regno di Magadozo or the Kingdom of Magadoxo in official medieval bulletins, at their peak they would go on to dominate what became Greater Benadir.[6]

"Magadoxa extends from Cape Bassas to the equator; its limits inland have not been ascertained. The prince having succeeded in maintaining his independence, and repelled all European intercourse, allows the country to be very little unknown."

European Incursion

One of its first tests of strength was to defend Mogadishu in 1701 against a French Incursion of Mogadishu which saw seven ships dock at a nearby harbour and stay for 11 days. They had planned to take the city but they were successfully repulsed. The quarters of Hamarweyn and Shingani united in the face of this threat. This was reported by Sharif Aydurus in his 20th-century book the Bughyat Al-Amal Fi Tarikh Al-Sumal.[7]

According to the Encyclopedia of Geography, in the year 1707 the British Royal Naval Warship H.M.S. Albemarle sent an armed boat on shore, but it was detained and never recovered; and a party from Captain W. Owen's vessel were imprisoned.[8] This would mark almost two centuries until Imperial forces return to East Africa.

Administration

The walls of Mogadishu, before it being demolished by the Italians. The picture reads Mura di Mogadiscio, which translates to Walls of Mogadishu.

The Ajuuraan predecessors had styled their leadership as an Imamate which was subsequently inherited by the Yacquubi family.[9]

The Hiraab Imamate exerted a centralized authority during its existence and possessed some of the organs and trappings of a traditional integrated state: a functioning bureaucracy, a state flag, regular correspondence with neighbouring civilizations in written Arabic, taxation in the form of livestock and cash crops including a third of the Mogadishu emporium port's revenue as well as a professional army.[10][11]

According to local oral tradition, the Hiraab imamate administration involved a powerful alliance of closely related groups who shared a common lineage under the Hiraab clan division of the Gorgaarte Hawiye. The alliance involved the army leaders and advisors of the Habar Gidir and Duduble, the religious roles were reserved by Sheekhaal, and the Imam was reserved for the Abgaal clan who is believed to have been the firstborn.[12] The Imamate was not only confined to Hiraab but incorporated other Somalis such as Hawadle, Gaalje'el, Murusade, Silcis, Surre and Benadiri.[13][14] Once established, the Imamate ruled the territories stretching from Mogadishu in the Banaadir province to the Shabelle valley, to Galguduud province all the way to the arid lands of Mudug, which included the ancient port of Hobyo.[15]

The Hiraab Imamate's main capital was at Mogadishu and the House of Yacquub was the ruling hereditary dynasty of the Hiraab Imamate.[15] The Imam would receive dignitaries in Mogadishu, correspond with leaders such as the Sultan of Zanzibar or foreign explorers and assign them patrons when they visited his territory to assist them in their business and trade.[16][17]

Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti an early Italian explorer who recorded traditions of the Imamate, had made the following observation;

It is a traditional custom among the Somalis, that the assumption of the title of Ugaz and Imam is always celebrated with an important ceremony attended by all the tribes with which they agree to convene. Great assemblies (scir) and fantasies take place to dance, eat, improvise songs, horse races and the party goes on for a month. In short, it is a real feast for which even when two tribes were at war, if a Somali assumes the title of Ugaz or Imam - the hostilities pursued - gain temporary peace. And it is in the solemnity of these assemblies that the head adorns themself with a special turban, made with filaments peeled from a tree which the Somalis call Ghed-hadd.[18]

Economy

Charles Guillain's caravan expedition in 1848, departing from Mogadishu.
Somali sailors in Mogadishu in 1860 flying Hiraab flags.

Hobyo served as a prosperous commercial center for the Imamate. The agricultural centers of El Dhere and Harardhere included the production of sorghum, maize and beans supplemented with herds of camels, cattle, goats, and sheep. Livestock, skin hides, aromatic woods and raisins were the primary exports while rice, other foodstuffs, and clothes were imported. Merchants looking for exotic goods came to the Imamate ports to buy textiles, precious metals and pearls. Harvesting along the Shabelle river where major agricultural centers were located like Beledweyne and Jowhar, a large number of fruits and vegetables were produced and brought to Mogadishu and Warsheikh for trade. Also, the increasing importance and rapid settlement of more southerly cities such as Mogadishu further boosted prosperity, as more and more ships made their way down the Somali coast to trade and replenish their supplies.[19]

The economy of the Hiraab in the interior includes nomadic pastoralism and cultivation within agricultural settlements in the Shebelle valley and fertile plains of central Somalia, as well as mercantile commerce along the urban coast. The Hiraab ports would export various commodities through its maritime routes including cattle skin, slaves, ivory, textiles, iron, gold, silva, pearls, ambergris, incense and numerous other exotic goods.[20][21]

Explorer John Kirk arrived in southern Somalia in 1873 during a period of great economic prosperity with the region being dominated by the Imamate and the Geledi Sultanate. Kirk met Imam Mahmood who reigned over Mogadishu. Trade between the Hiraab of Mogadishu and the Geledi Sultanate led by Ahmed Yusuf was flourishing. Kirk noted a variety of other things. Roughly 20 large dhows were docked in both Mogadishu and Merka respectively filled with grain produced from the farms of the Geledi in the interior with much of the trade being destined for Zanzibar.[22]

Military

Mogadishu in 1846

The Imamate had a regular force that acted as both law enforcement and a standing army with armament supplies from the coastal provinces. It also observed sharia law, protected the trade caravans, used a powerful mounted unit that policed the state, collected taxes or tributes of cereal and livestock. It also had a regular navy that protected its shores from piracy and the Indian Ocean trade.[5]

With such a strong civil administration and professional army, the Imamate experienced great peace and stability with a flourishing economy.[23]

It is known in several records that the Imamate imported firearms from Aden, Djibouti and Zanzibar to maintain armed guards in Mogadishu and to defend its country borders.[24][25] The Imamate was also said to have provided the Dervishes with an array of arms from the Benadir.[26]

Decline

By 1870, the Imamate had declined internally which was the main reason for decentralization. In a detailed event recorded by Italy, after the death of the 9th Imam Mohamed Ahmed in 1843, the succession to become the next Imam caused a serious dispute and a near full-scale civil war. The Imam had left seven sons, which saw one of them, Ali Mohamed, usurp the remaining six and kill the senior Mahmud Mohamed in his house in the Hamaruein quarter of the city. They would eventually split rulership with a coastal power headquartered in Adale from the first line of descent (Sultan Abikar or Abubaker) and an inland power based at the Mahaday river (Sultan Otoman) with the elder Imam family (Imam Mahmud) in Mogadishu both from the second line of descent.[27][28][29]

I figli di Ali Mohamed, Sciaeb, Abdurahman, Mahmud e Mahadalle mossero guerra contro i cugini Abdurahman, Achmed ed Ali. Rimasero morti Abdurahman e Mahmud, il quale lasciò tre figli, Hamir, Ali ed Omar. In seguito a questi eccidii il popolo Somalo si consultò seriamente per la nomina dell'Imam. Erano in antagonismo due partiti: che voleva Imam uno dei figli di Ali Mohamed, che uno dei figli di Mahmud Mohamed. La contesa fu accanita assai, tantochè per questa elezione successe una gran guerra fra le tribù, ove, dicesi, rimasero morti circa cinquecento persone d'ambo le parti.

"Ali Mohamed's sons, Sciaeb, Abdurahman, Mahmud and Mahadalle waged war against their cousins Abdurahman, Achmed, and Ali. Abdurahman and Mahmud remained dead and left behind three sons, Hamir, Ali, and Omar. Following these massacres, the Somali people seriously consulted for the appointment of the Imam. Two parties were in antagonism: those wanting as Imam the sons of Ali Mohamed, those for the sons of Mahmud Mohamed. The dispute was very fierce, so much so that for this election there was a great war between the tribes, where, it is said, about five hundred people were killed on both sides"

Si assicura, che finalmente uno della tribù degli Abgal, chiamato Omar Egalle, proponesse la pace, offrendosi di accomodare l'affare per l'elezione dell'Imam. E molto si affacendò infatti per quetare i tumultuosi partiti, non riuscendo a sedarli in parte se non con la definitiva divisizione del territorio: assegnando il tratto della costa da Ras Elhur sino a Merka sotto la protezione dei figli di Ali Mohamed, ed a principiare da Uarsciek per l'interno, sotto la protezione dei figli di Mahmud Mohamed. Questi venivano così ad occupare un territorio parallelo ai primi, ma più nell'interno.

"It was finally entrusted to the Abgal tribe, called Omar Egalle, to propose peace, offering to settle the deal for the election of the Imam. In fact, they worked hard to quell the tumultuous parties, failing to quell them in part if not within the definitive division of the territory: assigning the stretch of the coast from Ras Elhur to the environs of Merka under the protection of the sons of Ali Mohamed, and starting from Uarsciek for the interior, under the protection of the sons of Mahmud Mohamed. These thus came to occupy a territory parallel to the former, but more inland"

The Imamate also began to face challenges from increasing European design, the Sultan of Zanzibar from the coast, the Geledi Sultanate and the Hobyo Sultanate from both directions.[30][31][32]

Since the British-sponsored bombing of Mogadishu Port in 1828 by Oman for refusing protection, the Hiraab Imamate fought for decades to maintain a sphere of influence impending the arrival of European Powers and their regional allies in Zanzibar and Egypt.[33][34][35][36]

In exchange for support over conflict in Kismayo, Barawa and Merca against Hiraab clans of the hinterland such as the Abgaal, Wacdaan and Sheekhaal,[37][38][39] Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar, who had been greatly indebted to Britain, had requested the Sultanate of Geledi in the early 1870's to interpose his good offices and marriage ties with one of the factions of the Imamate for a trade garrison between them all, though initially rejected by the other Imamate faction[40][41] but faced with a trade injuction in Afgoye and Bulo Marerto, acquiesed with setting up an office near the Old City while some of the tribute went to the Imamate.[42][43]

The decline of the Hiraab Imamate saw many clans begin to break off from the state leading to its fragmentation and the most prominent one being the Hawadle ruling the Hiran region.[44] The Hiraab Imamate was now a traditional polity that exclusively governed the Hiraab clan territories including the capital Mogadishu.[45]

Soon after Britain set up a colony in Aden (South Yemen) in 1839, the Imamate's northern border areas of Hobyo were targeted in British and French ambitions to control the Somali coast closer to Aden and more directly rather than using the nominal offices of Zanzibar. They used the chief of Alula in the Bari region, Yusuf Ali Kenadid, to their advantage who, at the time of the 1884 Berlin Conference, was in conflict with his cousin-ruler over Alula, so a case was made to set up a new base in Hobyo to satisfy all the parties.

"With Britain's backing, Yusuf obtained Barghash's approval to create a new port near the mouth of the Wadi Nogal. Under pressure from Britain, Barghash agreed to acquiesce in Yusuf's proposals to establish a rival Majerteen state to the south of Cape Guardafui. Barghash, for his part, asserted that he would retain all the income and duties derived from his expanded coastline, stating that Yusuf was 'leasing' the coast to 'watch over' Zanzibari interests. In the few feverish weeks of international scheming in Aden with the British, French and Sultan Barghash, this had been predicated not out of a mutual interest but on power politics, aggression and British imperial control."[46]

An early European traveller, Elisée Reclus at the Consulate in Zanzibar, describes the German political events of Hobyo - where the British first planned to govern North East Somalia from,[47] until the German offices in Zanzibar entered negotiations at the time on the conflict-prone historical clan boundaries of the Hiraab Imamate and the Majerteen Sultanate[48][49][50][51] - in several French, German and English scientific journals.[52] The Germans similarly sought a treaty to govern Berbera to Hobyo.[53]

Some treaty concludes with the sultan of Opia, an obscure princelet now put forward as the "chief of all of the Somali people", his very existence is unknown to the vast majority of the nation, as is theirs to him. This village, or rather camping-ground of Opia, which has thus been suddenly promoted to the dignity of capital, is situated on a headland between the territory of the Hawiyas and that of the Mijertin tribe. But even diplomatists will never be able to make it the center of any large population, for the surrounding country is a waterless steppe, while the neighbouring seaboard is absolutely destitute of harbours

The Horn of Africa had been partitioned following the Berlin Conference in 1884 and after up to five years of local Hiraab clans blockading Merca to Ras Elhur and Hobyo in repelling the European influence,[54][55][56] the Italians in observation of other powers had made several attempts to trail warships along the coast from Zanzibar, first succeeding to negotiate with Bargash over Baraawe in 1885-1887 while officially moving into the colonial space of the rest of the Indian Ocean in early 1889 lifting the sieges through negotiations to re-open trade, lobbying voting bids against other European powers and by the dedicated offices of the Italian Consul General in Zanzibar and Fervent Imperial Explorer of East Africa, Antonio Cecchi who was later killed in Lafole in 1896 after seeking potential allies amongst the 1889-Italian possessions retitled the "Afgoi territory", "Obbia territory" and "Migiurtinia region" against the Ethiopian Empire fighting in Adwa before some of the local chiefs were later pensioned off in 1908 and 1925-1927, respectively.[57] Though some of the several chiefs of those regions or territories had long conspired or requested Italian protection several months or years earlier, Sultan Abiker Ali Jacub representing the Imamate's coastal faction and descendants of Imam Ali Mohamed who ruled the Jasira-Itala-Meregh-Elhur corridor with his seat in Itala (Cadale or 'Adale') signed the first local Somali-Italian treaty of friendship and commerce on 7 January 1889.[58] Attempting to achieve a favourable recognition with the new Colonial Power under its first Governor Captain Vincenzo Filonardi, Italy endeavored to make Adale the first Capital of its Colony by renaming the town from its Somali name Athaleh to Itala in connotation to 'Mother Italy' herself following an official landing in 1891.

While Sultan Abiker was returning to Adale he was killed shortly thereafter by his clan for what was deemed betrayal.[59] He was replaced politically by Sheikh Daud Abgaal of the principality of Mareeg.

Questi riferiva che Abubaker, Sultano di Itala e a buon amico dell'Italia, era stato ucciso a tradimento ai primi di marzo da alcuni somali della sua stessa tribù (Abgal) a poche ore di distanza dalla stazione di Itala.

"He reported that Abubaker, Sultan of Itala and a good friend of Italy, had been killed treasonously in early March by some Somalis of his own tribe (Abgal) a few hours away from the Itala station"

Italian Colony of Benadir (1921)

With the Captain's Italian military warships shortly on their way south to Mogadishu in the same year following the death of the Cadale ruler, the Volturno crewships had faced numerous conflicts in Cadale and Warsheikh before Imam Mahmud Imam Binyamin from the rival Imamate faction in Mogadishu signed the Benadir Protectorate treaty,[60] where Italy acquired concessions of all the Imamate's inland areas of the Hawiye, with Italy now administering both factions under a 'Greater Benadir'[61][62][63][64][65] (later called Southern Italian Somaliland in 1910) to serve as a frontier against Ethiopian ambitions in the North East, the Ogaden and against Britain ambitions in the North West and Jubaland.[66]

Robert L. Hess summarises the advent of Imperialism published in the Journal of African History.[67]

At the end of the nineteenth century the Horn of Africa had been partitioned among Ethiopia, Great Britain, and Italy. The evacuation of the Egyptian garrison at Harrar and the military prowess of Ras Makonnen had permitted Menelik to extend his new Ethiopian empire eastwards into the Ogaden region inhabited by various Somali tribes. In 1884, the British had extended a protectorate over northwestern Somalia for the strategic defense of Aden and the Bab El Mandeb entrance to the Red Sea. In 1893, after years of difficult negotiations, an Italian chartered company had assumed its concessions of the Benadir coast of Southern Somalia, and an Italian protectorate had in anticipation been proclaimed over the rest of southern Somalia in 1889. In that year of apparent but ephemeral diplomatic success, when Italy assumed that Ethiopia, too, was its protectorate, northeastern Somalia came under influence. In 1908, it united the northern protectorate (Obbia, Mejertain) and Benadir to form an Italian Somalia Governorate. Since 1889 however, there has been a rivalry in the north and south between Ethiopia and Italy over the allegiance of the Somalis.

Upon receiving further treaties and concessions from inland subclans at a time, Italy attempted to administer the traditionally remote and inaccessible hinterlands of Greater Benadir from Elhur on the Mudug coastline to Giumbo in the Lower Jubba.[68][69][70][71] This often led to border disputes over pasture, water wells and renewals of conflict. Regular attempts were made by the Colonial Administrator to draw up contractual agreements between the clans.[72][73][74]

Tra le popolazioni che , per la loro normale dislocazione verso i limiti interni del retroterra del Benadir e dei Sultanati , erano da considerarsi « genti di confine » , andavano annoverate , oltre quelle già dette : - le tribù degli Herab, insediate nella zona a cavallo.

"Among the populations that, due to their normal location towards the boundaries of the hinterland of Benadir and the Sultanates, were to be considered "border peoples", in addition to those already mentioned: - the Herab tribes, settled in the area on Horseback"

"The Obbian was not to initiate an offensive against the Mullah without the consent of the Resident, whom he recognised as the representative of the Italian government in all matters. Obbian expansion in the direction of Meregh was halted and all armed military movements had to be approved by the Italian Resident."[75]

After the Fascist takeover in the 1920s, the region was snapped up by the Italians under Italian Somaliland and this eventually led to the birth of a Modern Somalia. However, the Hiraab hereditary leadership has remained intact up to this day and enjoys a dominant influence in national Somali affairs.[76]

Rulers

Ruler NameReignNote
1 Imaam Yacquub Founder of the Hiraab Imamate and first Imam, eponymous ancestor of the Yacquubi dynasty
2 Imaam Xasan Imaam Yacquub
3 Imaam Maxamed Imaam Xasan
4 Imaam Maxamuud Imaam Xasan
5 Imaam Diimaale Imaam Xasan
6 Imaam Hilowle Imaam Diimaale
7 Imaam Maxamuud Imaam Hilowle
8 Imaam Cumar Imaam Maxamuud fl.1620 During his Imamate, Hiraab conquered Mogadishu and displaced the Ajuran Sultanate[77]
9 Imaam Maxamed Imaam Cumar His descendants would form a cadet Imamate based in Shingani district of Mogadishu
10 Imaam Maxamuud Imaam Maxamed
11 Imaam Axmed Imaam Maxamuud
12 Imaam Maxamed Imaam Axmed
13 Imaam Maxamuud Imaam Maxamed Reigning Imam who signed the Colonial Protectionate Treaty of Mogadishu in 1891[78]
14 Imaam Cabdiraxmaan Imaam Maxamuud
15 Imaam Caamir Imaam Cabdiraxmaan
16 Imaam Cumar Cali Imaam Caamir 19??-1986 Grandson of Imaam Caamir
17 Imaam Maxamuud Imaam Cumar 1986-2011 Son of Imaam Cumar, chaired the peacemaking efforts between rival Hawiye factions in the Somali civil war[79]
18 Imaam Maxamed Yuusuf Cali 2011–present Cousin of Imaam Maxamuud Imaam Cumar and nephew of Imaam Cumar Cali, he is the current Imaam of Mudulood and all Hiraab

See also

References

  1. ↑ Abdullahi, Abdurahman (2017-09-18). Making Sense of Somali History: Volume 1. ISBN 9781909112797.
  2. ↑ Cassanelli, Lee (1982). The Shaping of Somali Society. p. 124. ISBN 9780812278323.
  3. ↑ Cassanelli, Lee (1982). The Shaping of Somali Society. p. 125. ISBN 9780812278323.
  4. ↑ Cassanelli, Lee (1982). The Shaping of Somali Society. p. 126. ISBN 9780812278323.
  5. 1 2 Cassanelli, Lee (1982). The Shaping of Somali Society. p. 127. ISBN 9780812278323.
  6. ↑ Mitchell, Samuel (1842). Exhibiting the History of Geographical Science and the Progress of Discovery to the Present Time. Samuel Augustus Mitchell. p. 564.
  7. ↑ Sharif, 'Aydarus (1950). Bughyat al-amal fi tarikh al-sumal. pp. 108–109.
  8. ↑ Murray, Hugh (1931). The Encyclopædia of Geography Comprising a Complete Description of the Earth, Physical, Statistical, Civil, and Political. Lea and Blanchard. p. 72.
  9. ↑ Marcus, Harold (1973). Proceedings of the First United States Conference on Ethiopian Studies.
  10. ↑ Horn of Africa, Volume 15, Issues 1-4, (Horn of Africa Journal: 1997), p.130.
  11. ↑ Michigan State University. African Studies Center, Northeast African studies, Volumes 11-12, (Michigan State University Press: 1989), p.32.
  12. ↑ Bernhard, Helander (1994-01-19). "The Hiraab Treaty". Somalia News Update. Uppsala, Sweden: Dr. Bernhard Helander, Uppsala University. Archived from the original on 2007-02-24. Retrieved 2009-03-31. The Imam of Hiraab is a hereditary position that traditionally is held by a person of the first-born branch, the Mudulood.
  13. ↑ africana d'italia, Società (1882). Bollettino della Società africana d'Italia Volumes 25 26. p. 392.
  14. ↑ Somalia D'oggi (Soggettario Centro Studi Somalo 1956)|quote= L'anello dell'Imam - Leggenda di el Uergadi Vivevano un questa regione di Hirab, figli di Hirab e dei suoi figli Mudulle, Martille, Mahamud, Madarkeis e i Hauadle loro parenti e i Murosada e i Galmah e altri; nella regione che oggi chiamano Itala. Stavano contenti, con vacche, cammelli, capretti, e qualche sciamba. Come un padre, l'Imam governava i Hirab. Girava per le sue terre e, quando augurava pace per loro e i loro figli e i figli dei figli, con la sua parola scendeva la benedizione di Dio. The Imam's ring - Legend of El Uergadi There lived in this region of Hirab, the sons of Hirab and his sons Mudulle, Martille, Mahamud, Madarkeis and the Hauadle their kinsmen and the Murosadas and the Galmahs and others; in the region that today they call Itala (Adale). They were happy with cows, camels, kids, and some swarms. Like a father, the Imam ruled the Hirabs. He went around his lands and, when he wished peace for them and their children and children's children, God's blessing descended with his word.
  15. 1 2 Cassanelli, Lee (1982). The Shaping of Somali Society. p. 129. ISBN 9780812278323.
  16. ↑ Kirk, John (1873). Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Volume 17; Volumes 1872-1873. Edward Stanford. p. 341.
  17. ↑ Cassanelli, Lee (2006). "Tradition to Text: Writing Local Somali History in the Travel Narrative of Charles Guillain (1846-48)". Journal of African Cultural Studies. Taylor & Francis. 18.No1: 57–71. doi:10.1080/13696850600750319. S2CID 161600677.
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  19. ↑ Cassanelli, Lee (1982). The Shaping of Somali Society. p. 115. ISBN 9780812278323.
  20. ↑ Kenya's past; an introduction to historical method in Africa page by Thomas T. Spear
  21. ↑ Cassanelli, Lee (1982). The Shaping of Somali Society. p. 116. ISBN 9780812278323.
  22. ↑ Kirk, John (1873). Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Volume 17; Volumes 1872-1873. Edward Stanford. p. 341.
  23. ↑ Cassanelli, Lee (1982). The Shaping of Somali Society. p. 128. ISBN 9780812278323.
  24. ↑ Caniglia, Giuseppe (1935). Genti di Somalia. p. 69.
  25. ↑ The Eclectic review. 1806. p. 505.
  26. ↑ Commons, House of (1902). Parliamentary Papers Volume 69. p. 44.
  27. ↑ Brichettu, Robbecchi (1899). Somalia e Benadir: viaggio di esplorazione nell'Africa orientale. Prima traversata della Somalia, compiuta per incarico della Societá geografica italiana. p. 370.
  28. ↑ Brichettu, Robbecchi (1899). Somalia e Benadir: viaggio di esplorazione nell'Africa orientale. Prima traversata della Somalia, compiuta per incarico della Societá geografica italiana. p. 392.
  29. ↑ Parlamentari, Atti (1895). Documenti diplomatici concernenti Atti Parlamentari. Camera dei Deputati Volume 60. p. 29.
  30. ↑ Ismail, Ismail Ali (2010). Governance: The Scourge and Hope of Somalia. Trafford Publishing. p. xxiii. ISBN 978-1426983740.
  31. ↑ Kusow, Abdi (1974). Putting the Cart Before the Horse Contested Nationalism and the Crisis of the Nation State in Somalia. Red Sea Press. p. 82.
  32. ↑ Italiano, Touring Club (1938). Africa orientale italiana. Stampato nelle Officine fotolitografiche s.a. p. 581.
  33. ↑ Government, Somali (1974). The Portion of Somali territory under Ethiopian Colonization. Government Publications. Somali Democratic Republic. p. 4.
  34. ↑ Kapteijn, Lidwien (1974). Women's Voices in a Man's World Women and the Pastoral Tradition in Northern Somali Orature. LLC. p. 1.
  35. ↑ Turton, E.R. (1970). Kirk and the Egyptian Invasion of East Africa in 1875. Cambridge University Press. p. 366. JSTOR 180343.
  36. ↑ Britain, Great (1876). Accounts and Papers of the House of Commons. House of Commons. p. 16.
  37. ↑ Culturale, Dipartimento (1966). Somaliya antologia storico culturale issues. Wasaaradda Waxbarashada iyo Barbaarinta. p. 18.
  38. ↑ Moizo, Bernard (1999). Variations. L'Aube. p. 33.
  39. ↑ Stefanini, Giuseppe (1928). Le Colonie Rodi e le isole italiane dell' Egeo. Unione tipografico-editrice torinese. p. 157.
  40. ↑ Culturale, Dipartimento (1966). Somaliya antologia storico culturale issues. Wasaaradda Waxbarashada iyo Barbaarinta. p. 15.
  41. ↑ Culturale, Dipartimento (1966). Somaliya antologia storico culturale issues. Wasaaradda Waxbarashada iyo Barbaarinta. p. 16.
  42. ↑ Culturale, Dipartimento (1966). Somaliya antologia storico culturale issues. Wasaaradda Waxbarashada iyo Barbaarinta. p. 17.
  43. ↑ Britain, Great (1876). Accounts and Papers of the House of Commons. House of Commons. p. 17.
  44. ↑ Osman, Abdiwahid. Somalia A Chronology of Historical Documents. A. Osman Haji. p. 6.
  45. ↑ Somali Sultanate: The Geledi City-state Over 150 Years - Virginia Luling (2002) Page 94
  46. ↑ Smith, Nicholas (1974). Colonial Chaos in the Southern Red Sea A History of Violence from 1830 to the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 80. ISBN 9781108845663.
  47. ↑ Smith, Nicholas (1974). Colonial Chaos in the Southern Red Sea A History of Violence from 1830 to the Twentieth Century. Nicholas W.Smith. p. 81. ISBN 9781108845663.
  48. ↑ Malte-Brun, Conrad (1857). Nouvelles annales des voyages, de la geographie et de l'histoire, ou recueil des relations. Librarie di Gide Fils. p. 289.
  49. ↑ Bertrand, Paris (1856). Voyage à la còte orientale d'Afrique : exécuté pendant les années 1846, 1847 et 1848 par le brick le Ducouëdic, sous le commandement de M. Guillain. Librarie di Gide Fils. p. 54.
  50. ↑ Devic, Marcel (1883). Le pays des Zendjs; ou, La côte orientale d'Afrique au moyen-âge ... d'après les écrivains arabes. Hachette. p. 59.
  51. ↑ Foreign Office, Great Britain (1918). British Somaliland and Sokotra. Great Britain. Foreign Office. p. 40.
  52. ↑ Ismail, Elisée Reclus (1890). The Earth and Its Inhabitants: South and East Africa. D. Appleton. p. 411.
  53. ↑ Omar, Mohamed (2001). The Scramble in the Horn of Africa. Somali Publications. p. 27.
  54. ↑ Bricchetti, Luigi Robbecchi (1903). Nel paese degli aromi diario di una explorazione nell'Africa Orientale da Obbia ad Alula. Cogliati. p. 508.
  55. ↑ Bricchetti, Luigi Robbecchi (1903). Nel paese degli aromi diario di una explorazione nell'Africa Orientale da Obbia ad Alula. Cogliati. p. 54.
  56. ↑ Geografica Italiana, Societa (1890). Bollettino della Societa geografica italiana. The Society. p. 54.
  57. ↑ Vitale, Massimo Adolfo (1962). L'Italia in Africa, Ordinamento e reclutamento, Testo di M. A. Vitale. Comitato per la documentazione dell'opera dell'Italia in Africa. p. 178.
  58. ↑ Regio, Governo Della Somalia (1964). Regio Governo Della Somalia Museo della Garesa Catalogo (in Italian). La Societa Anonima Commerciale Italiana Del Benadir. p. 19.
    Osman Omar, Abla (1998). Somalia storia, economia e risorse, società e tradizioni, arte e cultura, religione (in Italian). Pendragon. p. 14.
    Carlo Giglio; Elio Lodolini, eds. (1973). Guida delle fonti per la storia dell'Africa a sud del Sahara esistenti in Italia (in Italian). International Council of Archives. p. 19.
  59. ↑ Finazzo, Giuseppinna (1966). L'Italia nel Benadir: l'azione di Vincenzo Filonardi, 1884-1896. Giuseppinna Finazzo. p. 351.
  60. ↑ Filesi, Cesira (1980). L'archivio del Museo africano in Roma presentazione e inventario dei documenti. Istituto italo africano. p. 83.
  61. ↑ Giardi, G (1912). Circoscrizioni amministrative e militari nella Somalia italiana meridionale. Originale conservato presso il Centro studi Somali. p. 1.
  62. ↑ Agostini, De (1918). Benadir Fisico Politico. Istituto Geografico. p. 60.
  63. ↑ Agostini, De (1930). Schizzo dimostrativo della colonia del Benadir. Roma De Agostini. p. 60.
  64. ↑ Bricchetti, Robecchi (1899). Somalia e Benadir. Aliprandi. p. 82.
  65. ↑ War Office, Great Britain (1907). Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04, Volume 1. H.M Stationery Office British Somaliland. p. 45.|quote=The Government of the coastline from Elhur to the Juba and of its hinterland was vested in the Benadir company, which held a charter from the Italian Government.
  66. ↑ Nganko, Pierre (1978). L'irrédentisme somali, 1960-1977. Institut des relations internationales. p. 36.
  67. ↑ Hess, Robert Lee (1964). The Mad Mullah and Northern Somalia. Journal of African History. p. 423.
  68. ↑ Government, British (1918). Sketch map of Somaliland. British Somaliland and Sokotra. p. 1.
  69. ↑ Puccioni, Nello (1931). Antropologia e etnografia delle genti della Somalia. Nicola Zanichelli. p. 3.|quote=The Heggi (Edji), nicknamed with which the immigrants of northern Somalia are called in Benadir, is rather the term of Dir or Daròd who are the two progenitors of the populations of the sultanates of Obbia and the Migiurtini.
  70. ↑ Library of Rome, National Central Library of Rome (1926). Costruire rivista mensile fascista. p. 62.|quote=The Sultanate of Obbia, populated by the Merehan, is made up of cabile originating from the Heggi until a protectorate was declared.
  71. ↑ Coloniale, Ministero (1936). L'Africa Orientale. Mondadori. p. 40.|quote=The large groups considered pure and therefore constituting the Somali people proper, are the Daròd and the Hauia. The Daròd populate the entire Obbia region while the Hauia populate the central part of Somalia.
  72. ↑ Cerullo, Enrico (1959). Somalia Volume 2. Istituto polographico dello stato. p. 79.|quote=The Habar Gidir are a Hawiya tribe. They have their seats as knights on the border between the Sultanate of Obbia and northern Benadir.
  73. ↑ La colonizzazione Europea nell'Est Africa Italia, Inghilterra, Germania (Gustavi Chiesi 1909)|quote=As Somalis of Migiurtinia and the Sultanate of Obbia have fame of pride, of belligerence, violence, fame, it is generally contradicted by the facts. Rare are the wars of a tribe, or a given number of Rer, against others: and these wars are summarized in a lengthy exchange with angry embassies, of raids and mutual stealing, inquests of caravans or merchandise intended for enemy tribes.
  74. ↑ Somalia: Dal 1914 al 1964, con appendice sul Corpo di sicurezza italiano nell'ambito dell' A. F. I. S. Italy. Esercito. Corpo di stato maggiore. Ufficio storico. p. 14.
  75. ↑ Mad Mullah and Northern Somalia. Cambridge University Press. p. 428.
  76. ↑ Gassem, Mariam (2002). Somalia: clan vs. nation. Gassim. p. 4.
  77. ↑ Enrico, Cerulli, How a Hawiye tribe used to live chapter 4, published in: Somalia, scritti vari editi ed inediti, Vol. 2, edited by Enrico Cerulli, Roma, 1959.
  78. ↑ Atti parlamentari, Volume 1: 1897, Tip.E.Botta, Italy, page 236
  79. ↑ The United Nations and Somalia: 1992-1996, United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1996, page 443
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