A hyperthermal event corresponds to a sudden warming of the planet on a geologic time scale.

The consequences of this type of event are the subject of numerous studies because they can constitute an analogue of current global warming.

Hyperthermal events

The first event of this type was described in 1991 from a sediment core extracted from a drilling of the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) carried out in Antarctica in the Weddell Sea.[1] This event occurs at the boundary of the Paleocene and Eocene epochs approximately 56 million years ago. It is now called the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). During this event, the temperature of the oceans increased by more than 5 °C in less than 10,000 years.[1]

Since this discovery, several other hyperthermal events have been identified in this lower part of the Paleogene geological period:

  • the Dan-C2 event at the beginning of the Danian stage of the Paleocene, about 65.2 million years ago, quite the basis of the Cenozoic era ;
  • the Danian-Selandian event at the transition between the Danian and Selandian stages of the Paleocene, about 61 million years ago ;
  • the two events following the PETM during the Eocene climatic optimum:
    • the Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (ETM2) about 53.2 million years ago,
    • and the Eocene Thermal Maximum 3 (ETM3) about 52.5 million years ago.[2]

But the PETM event remains the most studied of the hyperthermic events.

Other hyperthermic events occurred at the end of most Quaternary glaciations. Probably the most notable of these is the abrupt warming marking the end of the Younger Dryas, which saw an average annual temperature rise of several degrees in less than a century.[3][4][5][6]

Causes

While the consequences of these hyperthermic events are now well studied and known, their causes are still debated.

Two main tracks, possibly complementary, are mentioned for the initiation of these sudden warmings:

  • orbital forcing with long and/or short Earth cycle eccentricity maxima that accentuate significant seasonal contrasts and lead to global warming;[7][8][9]
  • remarkable volcanic activity, especially in the North Atlantic province.[10][11][12]

Consequences

Marine warming due to PETM is estimated, for all latitudes of the globe, between 4 and 5 °C for deep ocean waters and between 5 and 9 °C for surface waters.[13]

Carbon trapped in clathrates buried in high latitude sediments is released to the ocean as methane (CH
4) which will quickly oxidize to carbon dioxide(CO
2).[14]

Ocean acidification and carbonate dissolution

As a result of the increase in CO
2 dissolved in seawater, the oceans are acidifying. This results in a dissolution of the carbonates; global sedimentation becomes essentially clayey. This process takes place in less than 10,000 years while it will take about 100,000 years for the carbonate sedimentation to return to its pre-PETM level mainly by CO
2 capture through greater silicate weathering on the continents.[13]

Disruption of ocean circulations

The δ13C ratios of the carbon isotope contents of the carbonates constituting the shells of the benthic foraminifera have shown an upheaval in the oceanic circulations during the PETM under the effect of global warming.[15] This change took place over a few thousand years. The return to the previous situation, again by negative feedback thanks to the "CO
2 pump" of silicate weathering, took about 200,000 years.[15]

Impacts on marine fauna

While the benthic foraminifera had gone through the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction that occurred around 66 million years ago without difficulty, the hyperthermic event of the PETM, 10 million years later, decimated them with the disappearance of 30 to 50% of existing species.[16]

The warming of surface waters also leads to eutrophication of the marine environment which leads to a rapid increase by positive feedback of CO2 emissions.

Impacts on terrestrial fauna

Mammals that experienced a great development after the extinction of the end of the Cretaceous will be strongly affected by the climatic warming of the Paleogene. Temperature increases and induced climate changes modify the flora and the quantities of fodder available for herbivores. This is how a large number of groups of mammals appear at the beginning of the Eocene, about 56 million years ago:[17]

Analogies with current global warming

Even if the hyperthermal events of the Paleogene appear extremely brutal on the geologic time scale (in a range of a few thousand years for an increase of the order of 5 °C), they remain significantly longer than the durations envisaged in the current models of global warming of anthropogenic origin.[18][19]

The various studies of hyperthermal events insist on the phenomena of positive feedbacks which, after the onset of a warming, accelerate it considerably.

References

  1. 1 2 Kennett, J. P.; Stott, L. D. (1991-09-19). "Abrupt deep-sea warming, palaeoceanographic changes and benthic extinctions at the end of the Palaeocene". Nature. 353 (6341): 225–229. Bibcode:1991Natur.353..225K. doi:10.1038/353225a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 35071922.
  2. ↑ Agnini, Claudia; Macrì, Patrizia; Backman, Jan; Brinkhuis, Henk; Fornaciari, Eliana; Giusberti, Luca; Luciani, Valeria; Rio, Domenico; Sluijs, Appy; Speranza, Fabio (June 2009). "An early Eocene carbon cycle perturbation at ~52.5 Ma in the Southern Alps: Chronology and biotic response: CARBON PERTURBATION AT 52.5 Ma-NE ITALY" (PDF). Paleoceanography. 24 (2): n/a. doi:10.1029/2008PA001649.
  3. ↑ Dansgaard, W.; White, J. W. C.; Johnsen, S. J. (1989-06-15). "The abrupt termination of the Younger Dryas climate event". Nature. 339 (6225): 532–534. Bibcode:1989Natur.339..532D. doi:10.1038/339532a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4239314.
  4. ↑ Fawcett, Peter J.; Ágústsdóttir, Anna Maria; Alley, Richard B.; Shuman, Christopher A. (February 1997). "The Younger Dryas Termination and North Atlantic Deep Water Formation: Insights from climate model simulations and Greenland Ice Cores". Paleoceanography. 12 (1): 23–38. Bibcode:1997PalOc..12...23F. doi:10.1029/96PA02711. hdl:11603/24304. ISSN 1944-9186.
  5. ↑ "Younger Dryas - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  6. ↑ "Two examples of abrupt climate change". ocp.ldeo.columbia.edu. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  7. ↑ Lee, Mingsong; Bralower, Timothy J.; Kump, Lee R.; Self-Trail, Jean M.; Zachos, James C.; Rush, William D.; Robinson, Marci M. (24 September 2022). "Astrochronology of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum on the Atlantic Coastal Plain". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 5618. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.5618L. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-33390-x. PMC 9509358. PMID 36153313.
  8. ↑ Piedrahita, Victor A.; Galeotti, Simone; Zhao, Xiang; Roberts, Andrew P.; Rohling, Eelco J.; Heslop, David; Florindo, Fabio; Grant, Katharine M.; Rodríguez-Sanz, Laura; Reghellin, Daniele; Zeebe, Richard E. (15 November 2022). "Orbital phasing of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 598: 117839. Bibcode:2022E&PSL.59817839P. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117839. S2CID 252730173. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
  9. ↑ Lourens, L.J.; Sluijs, A.; Kroon, D.; Zachos, J.C.; Thomas, E.; Röhl, U.; Bowles, J.; Raffi, I. (2005). "Astronomical pacing of late Palaeocene to early Eocene global warming events". Nature. 435 (7045): 1083–1087. Bibcode:2005Natur.435.1083L. doi:10.1038/nature03814. hdl:1874/11299. PMID 15944716. S2CID 2139892.
  10. ↑ Kender, Sev; Bogus, Kara; Pedersen, Gunver K.; Dybkjær, Karen; Mather, Tamsin A.; Mariani, Erica; Ridgwell, Andy; Riding, James B.; Wagner, Thomas; Hesselbo, Stephen P.; Leng, Melanie J. (31 August 2021). "Paleocene/Eocene carbon feedbacks triggered by volcanic activity". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 5186. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.5186K. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-25536-0. hdl:10871/126942. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 8408262. PMID 34465785.
  11. ↑ Jin, Simin; Kemp, David B.; Yin, Runsheng; Sun, Ruyang; Shen, Jun; Jolley, David W.; Vieira, Manuel; Huang, Chunju (15 January 2023). "Mercury isotope evidence for protracted North Atlantic magmatism during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 602: 117926. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117926. S2CID 254215843. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
  12. ↑ Dickson, Alexander J.; Cohen, Anthony S.; Coe, Angela L.; Davies, Marc; Shcherbinina, Ekaterina A.; Gavrilov, Yuri O. (15 November 2015). "Evidence for weathering and volcanism during the PETM from Arctic Ocean and Peri-Tethys osmium isotope records". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 438: 300–307. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.08.019. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
  13. 1 2 Zachos, James C.; Röhl, Ursula; Schellenberg, Stephen A.; Sluijs, Appy; Hodell, David A.; Kelly, Daniel C.; Thomas, Ellen; Nicolo, Micah; Raffi, Isabella; Lourens, Lucas J.; McCarren, Heather; Kroon, Dick (2005-06-10). "Rapid Acidification of the Ocean During the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum". Science. 308 (5728): 1611–1615. Bibcode:2005Sci...308.1611Z. doi:10.1126/science.1109004. hdl:1874/385806. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 15947184. S2CID 26909706.
  14. ↑ Dickens, Gerald R.; O'Neil, James R.; Rea, David K.; Owen, Robert M. (December 1995). "Dissociation of oceanic methane hydrate as a cause of the carbon isotope excursion at the end of the Paleocene". Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology. 10 (6): 965–971. Bibcode:1995PalOc..10..965D. doi:10.1029/95PA02087. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
  15. 1 2 Nunes, Flavia; Norris, Richard D. (2006-01-05). "Abrupt reversal in ocean overturning during the Palaeocene/Eocene warm period". Nature. 439 (7072): 60–63. Bibcode:2006Natur.439...60N. doi:10.1038/nature04386. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 16397495. S2CID 4301227.
  16. ↑ Thomas, Ellen (2007). "Cenozoic mass extinctions in the deep sea: What perturbs the largest habitat on Earth?". Large Ecosystem Perturbations: Causes and Consequences. By Simonetta Monechi; Rodolfo Coccioni; Michael Rampino. GSA Special Papers. doi:10.1130/2007.2424(01).
  17. ↑ Gingerich, Philip D. (May 2006). "Environment and evolution through the Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 21 (5): 246–253. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2006.03.006. ISSN 0169-5347. PMID 16697910.
  18. ↑ Ying Cui; Lee R. Kump; Andy J. Ridgwell; Adam J. Charles; Christopher K. Junium; Aaron F. Diefendorf; Katherine H. Freeman; Nathan M. Urban & Ian C. Harding (2011). "Slow release of fossil carbon during the Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum". Nature Geoscience. 4 (7): 481–485. Bibcode:2011NatGe...4..481C. doi:10.1038/ngeo1179.
  19. ↑ Keller, Gerta; Mateo, Paula; Punekar, Jahnavi; Khozyem, Hassan; Gertsch, Brian; Spangenberg, Jorge E.; Bitchong, Andre Mbabi; Adatte, Thierry (April 2018). "Environmental changes during the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction and Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum: Implications for the Anthropocene". Gondwana Research. 56: 69–89. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2017.12.002.

See also

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