One of Earth's two ice sheets: The Antarctic ice sheet covers about 98% of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth, with an average thickness of over 2 kilometers.[1]

In glaciology, an ice sheet, also known as a continental glacier,[2] is a mass of glacial ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi).[3] The only current ice sheets are the Antarctic ice sheet and the Greenland ice sheet. Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers. Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap. An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery.

Although the surface is cold, the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat. In places, melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly. This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet — these are ice streams.

In previous geologic time spans (glacial periods) there were other ice sheets: during the Last Glacial Period at Last Glacial Maximum, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered much of North America, the Weichselian ice sheet covered Northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America.

Definition

An ice sheet is "an ice body originating on land that covers an area of continental size, generally defined as covering >50,000 km2 , and that has formed over thousands of years through accumulation and compaction of snow".[4]: 2234 

Common properties

Carbon stores and fluxes in present-day ice sheets (2019), and the predicted impact on carbon dioxide (where data exists).
Estimated carbon fluxes are measured in Tg C a−1 (megatonnes of carbon per year) and estimated sizes of carbon stores are measured in Pg C (thousands of megatonnes of carbon). DOC = dissolved organic carbon, POC = particulate organic carbon.[5]

Ice sheets have the following properties: "An ice sheet flows outward from a high central ice plateau with a small average surface slope. The margins usually slope more steeply, and most ice is discharged through fast-flowing ice streams or outlet glaciers, often into the sea or into ice shelves floating on the sea."[4]: 2234 

Ice movement is dominated by the motion of glaciers, whose activity is determined by a number of processes.[6] Their motion is the result of cyclic surges interspersed with longer periods of inactivity, on both hourly and centennial time scales.

Until recently, ice sheets were viewed as inert components of the carbon cycle and were largely disregarded in global models. Research in the past decade has transformed this view, demonstrating the existence of uniquely adapted microbial communities, high rates of biogeochemical/physical weathering in ice sheets and storage and cycling of organic carbon in excess of 100 billion tonnes, as well as nutrients (see diagram).[5]

Earth's current two ice sheets

Antarctic ice sheet

This section is an excerpt from Antarctic ice sheet.[edit]
An image of Antarctica differentiating its landmass (dark grey) from its ice shelves (light grey) and sea ice (white)
The Antarctic ice sheet is one of two ice sheets on Earth and covers about 98% of the Antarctic continent. It is the largest single mass of ice on Earth, with an average thickness of over 2 kilometres (1.2 mi).[7] It is distinct from the Antarctic sea ice. The Antarctic ice sheet covers an area of almost 14 million square kilometres (5.4 million square miles) and contains 26.5 million cubic kilometres (6,400,000 cubic miles) of ice.[8] The other ice sheet on Earth is the Greenland ice sheet.
This section is an excerpt from West Antarctic Ice Sheet.[edit]
The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West Antarctica, the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains that lies in the Western Hemisphere. It is classified as a marine-based ice sheet, meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves. The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf, the Ronne Ice Shelf, and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea.[9]
This section is an excerpt from East Antarctic Ice Sheet.[edit]

The East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) lies between 45° west and 168° east longitudinally. It was first formed around 34 million years ago,[10] and it is the largest ice sheet on the entire planet, with far greater volume than the Greenland ice sheet or the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS), from which it is separated by the Transantarctic Mountains. The ice sheet is around 2.2 km (1.4 mi) thick on average and is 4,897 m (16,066 ft) at its thickest point.[11] It is also home to the geographic South Pole and the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station.

The surface of the EAIS is the driest, windiest, and coldest place on Earth. Lack of moisture in the air, high albedo from the snow as well as the surface's consistently high elevation[12] results in the reported cold temperature records of nearly −100 °C (212 °F).[13][14] Because of that, it has been practically the only place on Earth to have experienced little-to-no warming caused by greenhouse gas emissions in the recent years.[12]

Greenland ice sheet

This section is an excerpt from Greenland ice sheet.[edit]
Greenland ice sheet as seen from space

The Greenland ice sheet (Danish: Grønlands indlandsis, Greenlandic: Sermersuaq) is an ice sheet about 1.67 km (1.0 mi) thick on average, and almost 3.5 km (2.2 mi) at its thickest point.[15] It is almost 2,900 kilometres (1,800 mi) long in a north–south direction, with the greatest width of 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) at a latitude of 77°N, near its northern margin.[16] It covers 1,710,000 square kilometres (660,000 sq mi), around 80% of the surface of Greenland, and is the second largest body of ice in the world, after the East Antarctic ice sheet.[15] It is sometimes referred to as an ice cap, or inland ice or its Danish equivalent, indlandsis. The acronyms GIS or GrIS are also frequently used in the scientific literature.[17][18][19][20]

While Greenland has had major glaciers and ice caps for at least 18 million years,[21] the ice sheet first emerged as a single entity covering most of the island some 2.6 million years ago[22] – a process which required significant changes to Greenland's orography millions of years earlier,[23][24] as well as the low temperatures due to a reduction in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.[17] Since then it has both grown, sometimes to a significantly larger size than now,[25][26] and shrunk, to less than 10% of its volume on at least one occasion around 400,000 years ago, when the temperatures were somewhat warmer than today.[27][28][29] Its oldest known ice is about 1 million years old.[30]

Melting due to climate change

This section is an excerpt from Effects of climate change § Ice sheets decline.[edit]

The melting of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets will continue to contribute to sea level rise over long time-scales. The Greenland ice sheet loss is mainly driven by melt from the top. Antarctic ice loss is driven by warm ocean water melting the outlet glaciers.[31]: 1215 

Future melt of the West Antarctic ice sheet is potentially abrupt under a high emission scenario, as a consequence of a partial collapse.[32]: 595–596  Part of the ice sheet is grounded on bedrock below sea level. This makes it possibly vulnerable to the self-enhancing process of marine ice sheet instability. Marine ice cliff instability could also contribute to a partial collapse. But there is limited evidence for its importance.[31]: 1269–1270  A partial collapse of the ice sheet would lead to rapid sea level rise and a local decrease in ocean salinity. It would be irreversible for decades and possibly even millennia.[32]: 595–596  The complete loss of the West Antarctic ice sheet would cause over 5 metres (16 ft) of sea level rise.[33]

In contrast to the West Antarctic ice sheet, melt of the Greenland ice sheet is projected to take place more gradually over millennia.[32]: 595–596  Sustained warming between 1 °C (1.8 °F) (low confidence) and 4 °C (7.2 °F) (medium confidence) would lead to a complete loss of the ice sheet. This would contribute 7 m (23 ft) to sea levels globally.[34]: 363  The ice loss could become irreversible due to a further self-enhancing feedback. This is called the elevation-surface mass balance feedback. When ice melts on top of the ice sheet, the elevation drops. Air temperature is higher at lower altitudes, so this promotes further melting.[34]: 362 

In geologic timescales

Antarctic ice sheet during geologic timescales

This section is an excerpt from Antarctic ice sheet § Situation during geologic time scales.[edit]
Polar climatic temperature changes throughout the Cenozoic, showing glaciation of Antarctica toward the end of the Eocene, thawing near the end of the Oligocene and subsequent Miocene re-glaciation.

The icing of Antarctica began in the Late Palaeocene or middle Eocene between 60[35] and 45.5 million years ago[36] and escalated during the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event about 34 million years ago. CO2 levels were then about 760 ppm[37] and had been decreasing from earlier levels in the thousands of ppm. Carbon dioxide decrease, with a tipping point of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation.[38] The glaciation was favored by an interval when the Earth's orbit favored cool summers but oxygen isotope ratio cycle marker changes were too large to be explained by Antarctic ice-sheet growth alone indicating an ice age of some size.[39] The opening of the Drake Passage may have played a role as well[40] though models of the changes suggest declining CO2 levels to have been more important.[41]

The Western Antarctic ice sheet declined somewhat during the warm early Pliocene epoch, approximately five to three million years ago; during this time the Ross Sea opened up.[42] But there was no significant decline in the land-based Eastern Antarctic ice sheet.[43]

Greenland ice sheet during geologic timescales

This section is an excerpt from Greenland ice sheet § In geologic timescales.[edit]
Timeline of the ice sheet's formation from 2.9 to 2.6 million years ago[17]

While there is evidence of large glaciers in Greenland for most of the past 18 million years,[21] they were more similar to various smaller modern formations, such as Maniitsoq and Flade Isblink, which cover 76,000 and 100,000 square kilometres (29,000 and 39,000 sq mi) around the periphery. The conditions in Greenland were not initially suitable to enable the presence of a single cohesive ice sheet, but this began to change around 10 million years ago, during the middle Miocene, when the two passive continental margins which now form the uplands of West and East Greenland had experienced uplift for the first time, which ultimately formed the Upper Planation Surface at a 2000 to 3000 meter height above mean sea level.[23][24]

Later, during the Pliocene, a Lower Planation Surface, with the 500 to 1000 meter height above sea level, was formed during the second stage of uplift 5 million years ago, and the third stage had created multiple valleys and fjords below the planation surfaces. These increases in height had intensified glaciation due to increased orographic precipitation and cooler surface temperatures, which made it easier for ice to accumulate during colder periods and persist through higher temperature fluctuations.[23][24] While as recently as 3 million years ago, during the Pliocene warm period, Greenland's ice was limited to the highest peaks in the east and the south,[44] ice cover had gradually expanded since then,[22] until the atmospheric CO2 levels dropped to between 280 and 320 ppm 2.7–2.6 million years ago, which had reduced the temperatures sufficiently for the disparate ice caps build up in the meantime to connect and cover most of the island.[17]

For much of the past 120,000 years, the climate in and around Greenland had been colder than in the last few millennia of recorded history (upper half), allowing the ice sheet to become considerably larger than it is now (lower half).[45]

Often, the base of ice sheet is warm enough due to geothermal activity to have some liquid water beneath it.[46] This liquid water, subject to great pressure from the continued movement of massive layers of ice above it, becomes a tool of intense water erosion, which eventually leaves nothing but bedrock below the ice sheet. However, there are parts of the Greenland ice sheet, near the summit, where the upper layers of the ice sheet slide above the lowest layer of ice which had frozen solid to the ground, preserving ancient soil, which can then be discovered when scientists drill ice cores, up to 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) deep. The oldest such soil had been continuously covered by ice for around 2.7 million years,[29] while another, 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) deep ice core from the summit reveals ice that is around ~1,000,000 years old.[30]

On the other hand, ocean sediment samples from the Labrador Sea provide evidence that nearly all of south Greenland had melted around 400,000 years ago, during the Marine Isotope Stage 11,[27][47] and other ice core samples, taken from Camp Century in northwestern Greenland at a depth of 1.4 km (0.87 mi), demonstrate that the ice there melted at least once during the past 1.4 million years, during the Pleistocene, and that it did not return for at least 280,000 years.[28] Taken together, these findings suggest less than 10% of the current ice sheet's volume was left during those geologically recent periods, when the temperatures were less than 2.5 °C (4.5 °F) warmer than preindustrial, which contradicts how climate models typically simulate continuous presence of solid ice under those conditions.[48][29]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Ice Sheets". National Science Foundation.
  2. ↑ American Meteorological Society, Glossary of Meteorology Archived 2012-06-23 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ↑ "Glossary of Important Terms in Glacial Geology". Archived from the original on 2006-08-29. Retrieved 2006-08-22.
  4. 1 2 IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
  5. 1 2 Wadham, J.L., Hawkings, J.R., Tarasov, L., Gregoire, L.J., Spencer, R.G.M., Gutjahr, M., Ridgwell, A. and Kohfeld, K.E. (2019) "Ice sheets matter for the global carbon cycle". Nature communications, 10(1): 1–17. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-11394-4. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
  6. ↑ Greve, R.; Blatter, H. (2009). Dynamics of Ice Sheets and Glaciers. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-03415-2. ISBN 978-3-642-03414-5.
  7. ↑ "Ice Sheets". National Science Foundation.
  8. ↑ Amos, Jonathan (2013-03-08). "Antarctic ice volume measured". BBC News. Retrieved 2014-01-28.
  9. ↑ Davies, Bethan (21 October 2020). "West Antarctic Ice Sheet". AntarcticGlaciers.org.
  10. ↑ Galeotti, Simone; DeConto, Robert; Naish, Timothy; Stocchi, Paolo; Florindo, Fabio; Pagani, Mark; Barrett, Peter; Bohaty, Steven M.; Lanci, Luca; Pollard, David; Sandroni, Sonia; Talarico, Franco M.; Zachos, James C. (10 March 2016). "Antarctic Ice Sheet variability across the Eocene-Oligocene boundary climate transition". Science. 352 (6281): 76–80. doi:10.1126/science.aab066.
  11. ↑ Fretwell, P.; Pritchard, H. D.; Vaughan, D. G.; Bamber, J. L.; Barrand, N. E.; Bell, R.; Bianchi, C.; Bingham, R. G.; Blankenship, D. D. (2013-02-28). "Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica". The Cryosphere. 7 (1): 375–393. Bibcode:2013TCry....7..375F. doi:10.5194/tc-7-375-2013. hdl:1808/18763. ISSN 1994-0424.
  12. 1 2 Singh, Hansi A.; Polvani, Lorenzo M. (10 January 2020). "Low Antarctic continental climate sensitivity due to high ice sheet orography". npj Climate and Atmospheric Science. 3. doi:10.1038/s41612-020-00143-w. S2CID 222179485.
  13. ↑ Scambos, T. A.; Campbell, G. G.; Pope, A.; Haran, T.; Muto, A.; Lazzara, M.; Reijmer, C. H.; Van Den Broeke, M. R. (25 June 2018). "Ultralow Surface Temperatures in East Antarctica From Satellite Thermal Infrared Mapping: The Coldest Places on Earth". Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (12): 6124–6133. Bibcode:2018GeoRL..45.6124S. doi:10.1029/2018GL078133. hdl:1874/367883.
  14. ↑ Vizcarra, Natasha (25 June 2018). "New study explains Antarctica's coldest temperatures". National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
  15. 1 2 "How Greenland would look without its ice sheet". BBC News. 14 December 2017.
  16. ↑ Greenland Ice Sheet. 24 October 2023.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Tan, Ning; Ladant, Jean-Baptiste; Ramstein, Gilles; Dumas, Christophe; Bachem, Paul; Jansen, Eystein (12 November 2018). "Dynamic Greenland ice sheet driven by pCO2 variations across the Pliocene Pleistocene transition". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 4755. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07206-w. PMC 6232173. PMID 30420596.
  18. ↑ Noël, B.; van Kampenhout, L.; Lenaerts, J. T. M.; van de Berg, W. J.; van den Broeke, M. R. (19 January 2021). "A 21st Century Warming Threshold for Sustained Greenland Ice Sheet Mass Loss". Geophysical Research Letters. 48 (5): e2020GL090471. Bibcode:2021GeoRL..4890471N. doi:10.1029/2020GL090471. hdl:2268/301943. S2CID 233632072.
  19. ↑ Höning, Dennis; Willeit, Matteo; Calov, Reinhard; Klemann, Volker; Bagge, Meike; Ganopolski, Andrey (27 March 2023). "Multistability and Transient Response of the Greenland Ice Sheet to Anthropogenic CO2 Emissions". Geophysical Research Letters. 50 (6): e2022GL101827. doi:10.1029/2022GL101827. S2CID 257774870.
  20. ↑ Bochow, Nils; Poltronieri, Anna; Robinson, Alexander; Montoya, Marisa; Rypdal, Martin; Boers, Niklas (18 October 2023). "Overshooting the critical threshold for the Greenland ice sheet". Nature. 622 (7983): 528–536. Bibcode:2023Natur.622..528B. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06503-9. PMC 10584691. PMID 37853149.
  21. 1 2 Thiede, Jörn; Jessen, Catherine; Knutz, Paul; Kuijpers, Antoon; Mikkelsen, Naja; Nørgaard-Pedersen, Niels; Spielhagen, Robert F (2011). "Millions of Years of Greenland Ice Sheet History Recorded in Ocean Sediments". Polarforschung. 80 (3): 141–159. hdl:10013/epic.38391.
  22. 1 2 Contoux, C.; Dumas, C.; Ramstein, G.; Jost, A.; Dolan, A.M. (15 August 2015). "Modelling Greenland ice sheet inception and sustainability during the Late Pliocene" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 424: 295–305. Bibcode:2015E&PSL.424..295C. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.05.018.
  23. 1 2 3 Japsen, Peter; Green, Paul F.; Bonow, Johan M.; Nielsen, Troels F.D.; Chalmers, James A. (5 February 2014). "From volcanic plains to glaciated peaks: Burial, uplift and exhumation history of southern East Greenland after opening of the NE Atlantic". Global and Planetary Change. 116: 91–114. Bibcode:2014GPC...116...91J. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.01.012.
  24. 1 2 3 Solgaard, Anne M.; Bonow, Johan M.; Langen, Peter L.; Japsen, Peter; Hvidberg, Christine (27 September 2013). "Mountain building and the initiation of the Greenland Ice Sheet". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 392: 161–176. Bibcode:2013PPP...392..161S. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.09.019.
  25. ↑ Knutz, Paul C.; Newton, Andrew M. W.; Hopper, John R.; Huuse, Mads; Gregersen, Ulrik; Sheldon, Emma; Dybkjær, Karen (15 April 2019). "Eleven phases of Greenland Ice Sheet shelf-edge advance over the past 2.7 million years" (PDF). Nature Geoscience. 12 (5): 361–368. Bibcode:2019NatGe..12..361K. doi:10.1038/s41561-019-0340-8. S2CID 146504179.
  26. ↑ Robinson, Ben (15 April 2019). "Scientists chart history of Greenland Ice Sheet for first time". The University of Manchester.
  27. 1 2 Reyes, Alberto V.; Carlson, Anders E.; Beard, Brian L.; Hatfield, Robert G.; Stoner, Joseph S.; Winsor, Kelsey; Welke, Bethany; Ullman, David J. (25 June 2014). "South Greenland ice-sheet collapse during Marine Isotope Stage 11". Nature. 510 (7506): 525–528. Bibcode:2014Natur.510..525R. doi:10.1038/nature13456. PMID 24965655. S2CID 4468457.
  28. 1 2 Christ, Andrew J.; Bierman, Paul R.; Schaefer, Joerg M.; Dahl-Jensen, Dorthe; Steffensen, Jørgen P.; Corbett, Lee B.; Peteet, Dorothy M.; Thomas, Elizabeth K.; Steig, Eric J.; Rittenour, Tammy M.; Tison, Jean-Louis; Blard, Pierre-Henri; Perdrial, Nicolas; Dethier, David P.; Lini, Andrea; Hidy, Alan J.; Caffee, Marc W.; Southon, John (30 March 2021). "A multimillion-year-old record of Greenland vegetation and glacial history preserved in sediment beneath 1.4 km of ice at Camp Century". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (13): e2021442118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11821442C. doi:10.1073/pnas.2021442118. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 8020747. PMID 33723012.
  29. 1 2 3 Gautier, Agnieszka (29 March 2023). "How and when did the Greenland Ice Sheet form?". National Snow and Ice Data Center.
  30. 1 2 Yau, Audrey M.; Bender, Michael L.; Blunier, Thomas; Jouzel, Jean (15 July 2016). "Setting a chronology for the basal ice at Dye-3 and GRIP: Implications for the long-term stability of the Greenland Ice Sheet". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 451: 1–9. Bibcode:2016E&PSL.451....1Y. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2016.06.053.
  31. 1 2 Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G. Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021: Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US doi:10.1017/9781009157896.011.
  32. 1 2 3 Collins M., M. Sutherland, L. Bouwer, S.-M. Cheong, T. Frölicher, H. Jacot Des Combes, M. Koll Roxy, I. Losada, K. McInnes, B. Ratter, E. Rivera-Arriaga, R.D. Susanto, D. Swingedouw, and L. Tibig, 2019: Chapter 6: Extremes, Abrupt Changes and Managing Risk. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 589–655. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.008.
  33. ↑ Stokes, Chris R.; Abram, Nerilie J.; Bentley, Michael J.; et al. (August 2022). "Response of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet to past and future climate change". Nature. 608 (7922): 275–286. Bibcode:2022Natur.608..275S. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04946-0. hdl:20.500.11820/9fe0943d-ae69-4916-a57f-13965f5f2691. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 35948707. S2CID 251494636.
  34. 1 2 Oppenheimer, M., B.C. Glavovic , J. Hinkel, R. van de Wal, A.K. Magnan, A. Abd-Elgawad, R. Cai, M. Cifuentes-Jara, R.M. DeConto, T. Ghosh, J. Hay, F. Isla, B. Marzeion, B. Meyssignac, and Z. Sebesvari, 2019: Chapter 4: Sea Level Rise and Implications for Low-Lying Islands, Coasts and Communities. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 321–445. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.006.
  35. ↑ Barr, Iestyn D.; Spagnolo, Matteo; Rea, Brice R.; Bingham, Robert G.; Oien, Rachel P.; Adamson, Kathryn; Ely, Jeremy C.; Mullan, Donal J.; Pellitero, Ramón; Tomkins, Matt D. (21 September 2022). "60 million years of glaciation in the Transantarctic Mountains". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 5526. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-33310-z. hdl:2164/19437. ISSN 2041-1723.
  36. ↑ Sedimentological evidence for the formation of an East Antarctic ice sheet in Eocene/Oligocene time Archived 2012-06-16 at the Wayback Machine Palaeogeography, palaeoclimatology, & palaeoecology ISSN 0031-0182, 1992, vol. 93, no1-2, pp. 85–112 (3 p.)
  37. ↑ "New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation". phys.org. September 13, 2009. Retrieved 2023-06-06.
  38. ↑ Pagani, M.; Huber, M.; Liu, Z.; Bohaty, S. M.; Henderiks, J.; Sijp, W.; Krishnan, S.; Deconto, R. M. (2011). "Drop in carbon dioxide levels led to polar ice sheet, study finds". Science. 334 (6060): 1261–1264. Bibcode:2011Sci...334.1261P. doi:10.1126/science.1203909. PMID 22144622. S2CID 206533232. Retrieved 2014-01-28.
  39. ↑ Coxall, Helen K. (2005). "Rapid stepwise onset of Antarctic glaciation and deeper calcite compensation in the Pacific Ocean". Nature. 433 (7021): 53–57. Bibcode:2005Natur.433...53C. doi:10.1038/nature03135. PMID 15635407. S2CID 830008.
  40. ↑ Diester-Haass, Liselotte; Zahn, Rainer (1996). "Eocene-Oligocene transition in the Southern Ocean: History of water mass circulation and biological productivity". Geology. 24 (2): 163. Bibcode:1996Geo....24..163D. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0163:EOTITS>2.3.CO;2.
  41. ↑ DeConto, Robert M. (2003). "Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica induced by declining atmospheric CO2" (PDF). Nature. 421 (6920): 245–249. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..245D. doi:10.1038/nature01290. PMID 12529638. S2CID 4326971.
  42. ↑ Naish, Timothy; et al. (2009). "Obliquity-paced Pliocene West Antarctic ice sheet oscillations". Nature. 458 (7236): 322–328. Bibcode:2009Natur.458..322N. doi:10.1038/nature07867. PMID 19295607. S2CID 15213187.
  43. ↑ Shakun, Jeremy D.; et al. (2018). "Minimal East Antarctic Ice Sheet retreat onto land during the past eight million years". Nature. 558 (7709): 284–287. Bibcode:2018Natur.558..284S. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0155-6. OSTI 1905199. PMID 29899483. S2CID 49185845.
  44. ↑ Koenig, S. J.; Dolan, A. M.; de Boer, B.; Stone, E. J.; Hill, D. J.; DeConto, R. M.; Abe-Ouchi, A.; Lunt, D. J.; Pollard, D.; Quiquet, A.; Saito, F.; Savage, J.; van de Wal, R. (5 March 2015). "Ice sheet model dependency of the simulated Greenland Ice Sheet in the mid-Pliocene". Climate of the Past. 11 (3): 369–381. Bibcode:2015CliPa..11..369K. doi:10.5194/cp-11-369-2015.
  45. ↑ Yang, Hu; Krebs-Kanzow, Uta; Kleiner, Thomas; Sidorenko, Dmitry; Rodehacke, Christian Bernd; Shi, Xiaoxu; Gierz, Paul; Niu, Lu J.; Gowan, Evan J.; Hinck, Sebastian; Liu, Xingxing; Stap, Lennert B.; Lohmann, Gerrit (20 January 2022). "Impact of paleoclimate on present and future evolution of the Greenland Ice Sheet". PLOS ONE. 17 (1): e0259816. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1759816Y. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0259816. PMC 8776332. PMID 35051173.
  46. ↑ Vinas, Maria-Jose (3 August 2016). "NASA Maps Thawed Areas Under Greenland Ice Sheet". NASA. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
  47. ↑ Irvalı, Nil; Galaasen, Eirik V.; Ninnemann, Ulysses S.; Rosenthal, Yair; Born, Andreas; Kleiven, Helga (Kikki) F. (18 December 2019). "A low climate threshold for south Greenland Ice Sheet demise during the Late Pleistocene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (1): 190–195. doi:10.1073/pnas.1911902116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6955352. PMID 31871153.
  48. ↑ Schaefer, Joerg M.; Finkel, Robert C.; Balco, Greg; Alley, Richard B.; Caffee, Marc W.; Briner, Jason P.; Young, Nicolas E.; Gow, Anthony J.; Schwartz, Roseanne (7 December 2016). "Greenland was nearly ice-free for extended periods during the Pleistocene". Nature. 540 (7632): 252–255. Bibcode:2016Natur.540..252S. doi:10.1038/nature20146. PMID 27929018. S2CID 4471742.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.