Kainji
Geographic
distribution
Kainji Lake, Nigeria
Linguistic classificationNiger–Congo?
Subdivisions
  • Lake
  • core Kainji
Glottologkain1275
The Kainji languages shown within the Middle Belt of central Nigeria

The Kainji languages are a group of about 60 related languages spoken in west-central Nigeria. They form part of the Central Nigerian (Platoid) branch of Benue–Congo.

Demographics

Four of the most widely spoken Kainji languages are Tsuvadi (150,000), Cishingini and Tsishingini (100,000 each)—all from the Kambari branch; and Clela (C'lela, Lela) (100,000), of the Northwest Kainji branch. In total, there were about one million speakers of Kainji languages (1990s estimate) in Nigeria.

History

Proto-Kainji is estimated by Blench (2012) to be 3,000 to 4,000 years old. Its broken distribution today is likely due to the historical northward expansion of the Nupoid languages.[1]

Morphology

Proto-Kainji nominal prefixes:[2]

  • *mV- for liquids and other mass nouns
  • *u- for person, *ba- for people
  • *kV- for diminutive and perhaps also augmentative; also found in some Plateau languages

Classification

The most divergent of the Kainji languages are Reshe, Laru and Lopa, which may form a branch together. Subclassification of the other branches is not yet clear. A bipartite division between East Kainji and West Kainji is no longer maintained, with West Kainji now being paraphyletic.

Blench (2018)

Most recent Kainji classification by Blench (2018:64):[2]

Blench (2012)

Blench's (2012) classification is:[1]

McGill (2012)

A revised classification of the Kainji languages by McGill (2012) splits Kainji into the Lake and Central branches.[3]

Kainji

Gerhardt (1983)

Classification of Plateau 1a (now West Kainji) and Plateau 1b (now East Kainji) languages by Gerhardt (1983),[4] based on Maddieson (1972):[5]

Plateau 1a
  • Laru-Lopa
  • Reshe
  • Kambari cluster
  • Ngwoi, Kamuku cluster, Bassa-Kontagora, Ashaganna
  • Bassa-Kaduna, Bassa-Kuta, Gurmana, Pongo, Baushi, Ura, Bassa-Kwomu
  • Dakarkari, Duka, Pəku-Kəri-Wipsi cluster, Lyase
Plateau 1b
  • Kuda-Chamo, Butu-Ningi, Gyema, Taura, Lemoro-Sanga, Janji, Shani, Buji-Ibunu-Jere-Gus, Anaguta
  • Kuzamaini, Kurama, Rumaya, Ruruma, Binawa, Kono, Surubu
  • Kaivi, Kiballo, Kitimi, Kinuku, Dungi, Gure-Kahugu
  • Amo

Names and locations

Below is a comprehensive list of Kainji language names, populations, and locations from Blench (2019).[6]

Note: West Kainji is geographical rather than genealogical.

GroupPrimary locations
Distributions of Kainji groups[6]
East KainjiKauru LGA, Kaduna State and Bassa LGA, Plateau State
West KainjiRafi LGA, Niger State and Zuru and Yauri LGAs, Kebbi State (Kainji Lake area)

East Kainji

West Kainji

LanguageBranchClusterDialectsAlternate spellingsOwn name for languageEndonym(s)Other names (location-based)Other names for languageExonym(s)SpeakersLocation(s)Notes
HɨpɨnaBaushiSupanaTihɨpɨnaVihɨpɨna pl. AhɨpɨnaNiger State, Rafi LGA, Supana town
MɨnBaushiTiimɨnVʷinyi Mɨn pl. Ayi MɨnBauchi Guda, Kukoki (name of largest town)Niger State, Rafi LGA, 27 villages in 8 chiefships
NdәkәBaushiShena may be a dialectMadakaTundәkәVundәkә pl. AndәkaNiger State, Rafi LGA, Madaka town
RubuBaushiNiger State, Rafi LGA, Rubu town
WãyãBaushiWayamTũwãyãVũwãyã pl. ÃwãyãNiger State, Rafi and Shiroro LGAs, Wayam town
SamburuBaushiNiger State, Rafi LGA, Samburu townno data
GurmanaEasternestimated more than 3,000 (1989)Niger State, Shiroro LGA. Gurmana town and nearby hamlets
CipuKambariKumbashi, Tikula, Ticihun, Tirisino, Tidipo, Tizoriyo, TiddodimoCicipuTocipuAcipa, Achipa, Achipawa, AtsipawaTәcәp Tochipo Tә–SәgәmukBucepo sg., Ucɛpo pl. Bu–Sәgәmuk sg.3,600 (1949 G&C)Kebbi State, Sakaba LGA; Niger State, Mariga and Rafi LGA, Kaduna State Birnin Gwari LGA
Damakawa (extinct)KambariDamakawaTidama’un (Cicipu name)500-1000 ethnic population, but language now has only a few rememberersKebbi State, Sakaba LGA, villages of Inguwar Kilo and MaranduThe dubious reliability of some of the data and the possibility of Cipu loans makes the classification of Damakawa slightly uncertain.
Kambari I clusterKambariKambari IKamberiwith Kambari II: 67,000 (1952 W&B); 100,000 (1973 SIL)Niger State, Magama and Mariga LGAs; Kebbi State, Zuru and Yauri LGAs; Niger State, Borgu LGA
AgaɗiKambariKambari ITsɨgaɗiKakihumNiger State, Mariga LGA
AvaɗiKambariKambari IAbadi, EvadiTsɨvaɗiIbetoNiger State, Magama LGA
BaangiKambariKambari IBaangiciBaangisg. vuBaangi, pl. aBaangiBangawa (Hausa)estimate more than 5,000 (1989)Niger State, Kontagora LGA, Ukata town and nearby villages; probably also into adjacent Kebbi State, Yauri LGA
TsishinginiKambariKambari ICishingini, TsishinginiMashingini pl. AshinginiSalkaNiger State, Magama LGA
YumuKambariKambari IYumu, OsisiNiger State, Borgu LGA, at Yumu and Osisi
Kambari II clusterKambariKambari IIKamberiwith Kambari I: 67,000 (1952 W&B); 100,000 (1973 SIL)Niger State, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Zuru and Yauri LGAs; Kwara State, Borgu LGA
AgaushiKambariKambari IICishinginiAunaNiger State, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA
AkimbaKambariKambari IITsɨkimbaAkimbaAuna, WaraNiger State, Rijau, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA
Cishingini, NwanciKambariKambari IICishingini, NgwәciCishingini, TsɨwәnciMawunci sg. Ŋwәnci pl.AgwaraAgara’iwaNiger State, Borgu, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA
ZubazubaKamukuGamazubaIgwama, Mariga LGA, Niger State
Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki clusterKamukuCinda-Regi-Rogo-KukiKamukuNiger State, Chanchagga, Rafi and Mariga LGAs
CindaKamukuCinda-Regi-Rogo-KukiOxford Primary Maths 1 (1988?)Jinda, MajindaTucindәsg. Bucindә pl. CindәNiger State, Mariga, Rafi, Kusheriki LGAs, Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA
RegiKamukuCinda-Regi-Rogo-KukiTuregisg. Buregi pl. RegiNiger State, Mariga, Rafi, Kusheriki LGAs, Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA
KukiKamukuCinda-Regi-Rogo-KukiAzana, AkubyarTiyar [town name not a language]TuKukiBuKuki pl. KukiKamukuNiger State, Mariga, Rafi, Kusheriki LGAs, Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA
Kwacika (extinct)KamukuCinda-Regi-Rogo-KukiTukwacikasg. Bukwacika pl. KwacikaThere was only one elderly speaker in the 1980s; hence, it is almost certainly extinctKaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA
KwagereKamukuCinda-Regi-Rogo-KukiNiger State, Chanchagga, Rafi and Mariga LGAs
Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi clusterKamuku–BasaBasa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi
Basa-GuraraKamuku–BasaBasa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-MakurdiBasa-KwaliFederal Capital Territory, Yaba and Kwali LGAs, along the Gurara river
Basa-BenueKamuku–BasaBasa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-MakurdiBasaRuBasaTuBasaAbacha, AbatsaBasa-Komo, Basa-Kwomu (not recommended)30,000 (1944-50 HDG); 100,000 (1973 SIL)Kogi State, Bassa, and Ankpa LGAs, Nasarawa State, Nasarawa LGA
Basa-MakurdiKamuku–BasaBenue State, Makurdi LGA, several villages on the north bank of the Benue, northwest of Makurdino data
Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora cluster (extinct?)Kamuku–BasaBasa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora (extinct?)
Basa-Gumna (extinct)Kamuku–BasaBasa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora (extinct?)Gwadara-Basa, Basa Kuta, Basa-KadunaOnly 2 known semi-speakers in 1987. The population known as Basawa speaks only Hausa. Probably now extinctNiger State, Chanchaga LGA
Basa-Kontagora (extinct)Kamuku–BasaBasa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora (extinct?)Fewer than 10 speakers in 1987. Probably now extinctNiger State, Mariga LGA, N.E. of Kontagora
Basa-GurmanaKamuku–BasaKɔrɔmbamore than 2,000 speakers (1987)Niger State, border of Rafi and Chanchaga LGAs, Kafin Gurmana
RogoKamuku–BasaCinda-Regi-Rogo-KukiTɔRɔgɔBɔRɔgɔ sg. Rɔgɔ pl.Ucanja KamukuNiger State, Rafi and Kusheriki LGAs, around Ucanja town, 30 km northwest of Kagara.
FungwaKamuku–BasaTufungwaAfungwaUra, Ula900 (1949 H.D. Gunn)Niger State, Rafi LGA, at Gulbe, Gabi Tuƙurbe, Urenciki, Ringa and Utana
Hùngwә̀ryə̀Kamuku–BasaDialects: Bitbit (Kwabitu), Lәklәk (Karaku), Jinjin (Makangara), Wũswũs (Karaiya), Tәmbәrjә (Tambere)Cәhungwә̀ryə̀, Tʷə̀hungwә̀ryə̀ [ʨə̀hungwә̀ryə̀]Bùhùngwə̀ryə̀ sg., ə̀hùngwə̀ryə̀ pl.Ngwoi, Ngwe, Ungwe, Ingwe, Nkwoi, Ngwai, Ungwai, Hungworo1000 (1949 HDG), 5000 (2007 est.)Niger State, Rafi, Kusheriki LGA, around Kagara and Maikujeri towns
Shama–Sambuga clusterKamuku–BasaShama–SambugaTushamasg. Bushama, pl. UshamaKamukuNiger State, Rafi LGA
ShamaKamuku–BasaShama–SambugaTushamaBushama sg. Ushama pl.Niger State, Rafi LGA, Ushama [=Kawo] town. 15 km northwest of Kagara
Sambuga (extinct)Kamuku–BasaShama–SambugaPossibly extinct (2008)Niger State, Rafi LGA, Sambuga town. 10 km northwest of Kagara
ShenLakeLaro, LaruLaruwa1,000 (1992 est.)Niger State, Borgu LGA
RopLakeLupa, LopaKirikjirDjiriLopawa960 (NAT 1950); 5,000 (1992 est.)Niger State, Borgu LGA, Kebbi State, Yauri LGA. At least 6 villages on the east shore of Kainji Lake plus two others on the western shore.
TsupaminiLakeLopaLopanciLopawa960 (NAT 1950); 5,000 (1992 est.). Global estimate with RopNiger State, Borgu LGA, Kebbi State, Yauri LGA. At least 6 villages on the east shore of Kainji Lake plus two others on the west shore.
ResheLakeBirәmi (South), Bәmәmәdu (Northwest), Bәpalame (Northeast). Harris (1930:321) claims a ‘secret dialect’ called Tsudalupe which = Bәmәmәdu.Tsure JaTsuresheBaresheGunganciGungawa, Yaurawa15,000 (1931 G&C); 30,000 (1973 SIL)Kebbi State, Yauri LGA; Niger State, Borgu LGA
Hun–SaareNorthernWestern (sSaare) (around Dukku), Eastern (tHun) (around Rijau), Tungan BunuEthuntHun, sSaareHunnɛDukaDukanci19,700 (1949 Gunn and Conant); 30,000 (1980 UBS)Kebbi State, Sakaba LGA; Niger State, Rijau LGA
Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun clusterNorthernKag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–ZuksunThe name ut-Main has been adopted by various members of this cluster as a cover term for these languages, but whether it will be widely adopted remains to be seen.Fakanci, Fakkanci12,300 (1949 G&C)Kebbi State, Zuru and Wasagu LGAs, west of Dabai
KagNorthernKag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–ZuksuntKagsg. woo Kag, pl. KagneFaka, Fakai (town name), Fakanci, FakkanciPәku–Nu (cLela name)Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, Mahuta and Fakai areas
FerNorthernKag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–ZuksuntFersg. wasFer, pl. asFerKukum Wipsi–Ni (cLela name)Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, around Kukum town
JiәrNorthernKag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–ZuksuntJiәrsg. wauJiәr, pl. aJiәrGelanci SerimGelawa, Geeri–niKebbi State, Zuru LGA, around Bajidda; Rijau LGA, Niger State
KәrNorthernKag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–ZuksuntKәrsg. wauKәr, pl. KәrneKela, Adoma Kelanci KilinciKeri–Ni KelawaKebbi State, Zuru and Wasagu LGAs, north of Mahuta but south of the Kag river
KoorNorthernKag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksunt–ma–Koorsg. wauKoor, pl. aKoorKebbi State, Zuru LGA, around Bakara
RorNorthernKag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–ZuksunDialect used for language developmentǝt–ma–Rorsg. wauRor, pl. aRorTudawa d–GwanKebbi State, Zuru LGA around Birnin Tudu
UsNorthernKag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–ZuksunUs have no specific dialect but speak like the RortUssg. wauUs, pl. aUs, asUsKebbi State, Zuru LGA, west of Fakai
ZuksunNorthernKag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–ZuksuntZuksunsg. wauZuksun, pl. aZuksunZusu Wipsi–niKebbi State, Zuru LGA around Tungan Kuka, south of Fakai
Wuri-Gwamhyә–MbaNorthernGwamfiwa–Gwamhi sg. a–Gwamhi pl. and wa–Wuri sg. a–Wuri pl.BanganciLyase–ne Dәknu Bangawa for GwamhiTwo peoples with one languageKebbi State, Wasagu LGA; Gwamhi around Danko town and Wuri around Maga townThe term Wurkum is applied to the Kyak, Banda, Kulung, Kwonci, Maghdi, Kholok, Mingang, Pero, Piya, and Nyam group, several of which remain to be investigated.
cLelaNorthwesternZuru, RibahcLela (Clela, C–Lela), LelnaKәlela sg., Lelna pl.Chilala DakarciLalawa, Dakarkari, Dakkarkari, Kalla–Kalla, Cala–Cala47,000 (1949 G&C); 69,000 (1971 Welmers)Kebbi State, Zuru, Sakaba and Wasagu LGAs; Niger State, Rijau LGA. Around Zuru town
RinShiroroAwәgә is sometimes classified as a dialect of Rin, but it may in fact be a distinct but vanishing language spoken by one Rin clan.Tә̀rĩ́, Tarinsg. Bùrĩ,́ pl. Arĩ ́Arringeu, Pongu, Pongo, Pangu3,675 (1949 HDG); >20,000 (1988)Niger State, Rafi LGA, near TeginaDespite the indigenous name, forms of Pangu are preferred by the community for publications purposes.

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:[7]

ClassificationLanguage12345678910
Western, ResheReshe (Tsureshe)tsúnnɛ̀rìsə̄tàtswānāʃẽ́tɔ̃̄tēnzɔ̄tànsã̄dálànzɔ̀tānāʃẽ́úpwà
Western, BasaBassahĩnjèbítàtɔnéʃìtánátʃìhintʃéndʒetɔndatɔtʃíndʒìʃìuḿpwá
Western, DukaC'lelatʃĩ́ʔílɨ̀tɨ́ːt͡ʃùnáːsétã́t͡ʃíhĩ̀tã̀ʔílɨ̀ (5 + 2)jɨ́ːɾùdóːɾèʔóːpá
Western, Dukaut-Ma'intʃɘ̄ːnjɘ̄ːrtɘ̄tnáːstánʃìʃìntàʔèr (5 + 2) ?éːrdʒʷɘ̄ːrɔ̄p
Western, KambariTsishingini (Kambari)íyyánìɾɛ̀tàʔàtsúnə́ʃíntáːwúntə̀ːlítʃìndɛ̀ɾɛ́kùnlə̀kùttʃíkùppá
Western, KamukuWestern Acipa (Cicipu)tôːjápùtâːtùnósìtã̂utóɾíhĩ̀tíndàjàkùrílːòkùtítːíùkúpːà
Western, KamukuCinda (Kamuku)ĩ́jɑ́ⁿdə́ɰə̀tɑ́tɔ̀nə́ʃìtɑ́ɑ̀tə́nə́hìtə́ndə́ɰə̀tə́ntɑ́tɔ̀tə́ndə́ʃìòpɑ́
Western, KamukuFungwa (Cifungwa)ń / bikéjógòtátùnɔ́ʃìtʃíjĩ̀tĩ́dòlòtĩ́dátùtĩ́díʃìhúpɛ́
Western, KamukuHungworo (Hungwere)ĩ́ːjə̃́ʔʲə̃̂d͡ʒə̀tât̼ɔ̀ùnə́sĩ̀sàtáūt̼únìhĩ̄ūtə́ndə̀ɾʲə̄ūtátàt̼ɔ̄ (2 x 4) ?ūtə́nə̀sĩ̄īkópʲè
Western, KamukuPongu (Pangu)hĩ́ːɾêːnùtâːtùnə̃́ːʃĩ̀tʃíníhìtə̃́ndə́ɾə̀tə̃́ndáːtùtṹndúʃìúpwá
Eastern, Northern Jos, JeraAnaguta (Iguta)dínkārɛ̀ːpútààrū / tàːrūnàːnzīʃùːbìtwàːsìsúnāːríùrūtɔ̀rbɔ̀būtúːrú
Eastern, Northern Jos, KauruGure (Gbiri-Niraɡu)pi:ʃempiːbɑːpiːtærpiːnɑːzpiːʃiːpiːtæ ʃipiːsundæriːpiːkunæspiːturuːriːkiʃiːæbɑː / nikpiːrinætʃeti
Eastern, Northern Jos, KauruKurama (Akurmi)nìdíitɨɽyátɨtáaɽɔtɨnáazɛúʃiiútasɛúsúndèɽìúɽiɽéùtáɽáníkúɽí

References

  1. 1 2 Blench, Roger (2012). "The Kainji languages of northwestern and central Nigeria" (PDF). Cambridge: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation.
  2. 1 2 Blench, Roger M. 2018. Nominal affixing in the Kainji languages of northwestern and central Nigeria. In John R. Watters (ed.), East Benue-Congo: Nouns, pronouns, and verbs, 59–106. Berlin: Language Science Press. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1314323
  3. McGill, Stuart. 2012. The Kainji languages. Ms, School of Oriental and African Studies, London, 30 August 2012.
  4. Gerhardt, Ludwig. 1983. Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Sprachen des Nigerianischen Plateaus. Glückstadt: Verlag J. J. Augustin.
  5. Maddieson, Ian. 1972. The Benue-Congo Languages of Nigeria. Sheet 1 and 2: Plateau. Mimeographed paper. Ibadan.
  6. 1 2 Blench, Roger (2019). An Atlas of Nigerian Languages (4th ed.). Cambridge: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation.
  7. Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.

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