Sultanate of Kashmir
سلطنت کشمیر (Persian)
The Sultanate of Kashmir
مملکتِ کشمیر (Kashmiri)
The State of Kashmir
1320–1323
1339–1589
Kashmir Sultanate along with it's sub-divisions
Kashmir Sultanate along with it's sub-divisions
StatusSultanate (Independent Country)
CapitalSrinagar
(1320–1323; 1339–1343; 1354–1470; 1472–1529; 1530–1586)
Andarkot
(1343–1354)
Sikandarpur
(1470–1472)
Naushahra
(1529–1530)
Chandrakot
(1586–1587)
Varmul
(1587–1588)
Suyyapur
(1586–1588)
no centralised capital
(1588–1589)
Common languagesPersian
Kashmiri
Dardic
Arabic
Religion
State religion: Sunni Islam (Shafi)
(1320–1561)
Shia Islam (Imamiyya)
(1561–1589)
Minority religions:
Hinduism
Buddhism
Demonym(s)Kashmiri
GovernmentAbsolute monarchy
Sultan 
• 1320–1323 (first)
Sadr'ud-Din Shah
• 1586–1589 (last)
Yakub Shah Chak
Wazir 
• 1320–1323 (first)
Tukka
• 1586–1589 (last)
Nazuk Bhat
Historical eraMedieval India
• Conversion of Rinchan Shah
1320
• Lohara Interruption
1323–1339
1338–1339
December 1419–July 1420
• Babur's expedition
1527
• Kashgar–Kashmir War
January–May 1533
• Second Mughal invasion
22 November 1540–October 1551
• Battle of Vahator
13 August 1541
• Restoration
October 1551
• Third Mughal invasion
20 December 1585–14 October 1586
• Battle of Hastivanj
10 October 1586
• War of Independence
19 November 1586–8 August 1589
Area
1323250,200 km2 (96,600 sq mi)
CurrencyGold Dinar, Silver Sasnu, Bronze Kasera
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Lohara dynasty
Delhi Sultanate
Mughal Empire
Today part ofIndia
Pakistan

The Kashmir Sultanate (Kashmiri: مملکتِ کشمیر Mamlekat-e-Kashmīr, The State of Kashmir, Persian: سلطنتِ کشمیر; Saltanat-e-Kashmīr) or historically latinized as Sultanate of Cashmere, was a medieval Indo-Islamic kingdom established in the early 14th century in Northern India, primarily in the Kashmir Valley. The sultanate was founded by Rinchan Shah, a Ladakhi noble who converted from Buddhism to Islam. The sultanate was briefly interrupted by the Loharas until Shah Mir, a councillor of Rinchan, overthrew the Loharas and started his own dynasty. The Shah Mirs ruled from 1339 until they were deposed by the Chak warlords and nobles in 1561. The Chaks continued to rule the sultanate until the Mughal conquest in 1586 and their surrender in 1589.

The Kashmir Sultanate was a Muslim monarchy with Kashmiri, Turco-Persian, Kohistani, Dardic, and Ladakhi elites. A Ladakhi Muslim, Rinchan Shah, served as the first Sultan and was followed by the two prominent dynasties, Shah Mir and Chak dynasty. A Baihaqi Sayyid, Mubarak Baihaqi, briefly ruled the Sultanate after overthrowing Yousuf Chak in 1579. Due to the diversity, the kingdom worked on the principles of Kashmiriyat, containing and existing between the proximites of the cultural and religious pluralism. Even though Persian was favoured upon as the official, diplomatic, and state language, Kashmiri still had a large impact on the social and communal work and was later granted official status. The economical center as well as the vital mint city of the sultanate, Srinagar, served as the capital for the majority of its lifespan while the diverse city of Varmul, the highly rich and cultivated land of Suyyapur, the hilly areas of Anantnag and the surrounding valleys of Neelum were the notable commercial and residential districts. The sultanate carried out major trading relations, having establishments in Bihar, Tibet, Nepal, Peking, Bhutan, Khurasan, and Turkestan whereas Punjab and Bengal were considered her greatest trading and industrial partners. Besides Delhi Sultanate, Kashmir, along with Bengal, Gujarat, and Sindh, were considered strong political and martial allies, even interfering in one another's internal problems.

During the sultanate era, the valley was influenced by various orders of Sufism and mysticism. The Suhrawardiyya, Kubrawiya, Rishi, and Nurbakhshiya orders were formally adopted and regulated by the Sultans in their reign. A form of peace culture evolved around the Kashmiri Pandits and Muslims in the leadership and teachings of Lal Ded, Nund Rishi, Habba Khatun, Yaqub Ganai and, Habibullah Ganai. With the beginning of the Muslim epoch, Indo-Islamic architecture was observed along with the Kashmiri architecture evolving into the Islamic Kashmiri style of infrastructure and designing. This style can still be seen in the old muhallahs of Srinagar.

History

Background (13th and 14th centuries)

Numerous attempts had been made to conquer Kashmir first by the Arabs in the 7th and 8th century and then by the Turks in the 11th century[1] but it was not until the reigns of Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad of Ghor that Kashmir looked out to serious threats of invasion.[2][3] It was at this time that Turkic and Tajik traders entered Kashmir and were allowed to serve in the Lohara army.[4] With the Hindu emperors weakened, Kashmir became a subject to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century.[5] Unable to fend off the invasions this time, Kashmir became a Mongol dependency some time after 1235.[6] In 1320, a Mongol commander, Zulju, with an army of Qara'unas, entered Kashmir and, after all types of atrocities and violence,[7][5] left the valley with the loot. As Emperor Suhadeva fled to Kishtwar, the valley passed on to the hands of local chiefs who asserted independence.[8][9] The most prominent of them were Ramacandra, the commander-in-chief of Suhadeva, and Rinchan Bhoti, a Ladakhi Buddhist noble, who left Ladakh after his father, a Ladakhi chief, was killed by the Baltis.[10] Rinchan, who founded no one more powerful than him after he had killed Ramacandra in a surprise attack, ascended the throne as Rinchan Shah.[11]

The first challenge faced by Rinchan was to gain the trust of the public and of the nobles.[12] For that, he released Ramacandra's son, Rawancandra, and his family and granted him the title of Raina (Lord) with some jagirs. He also appointed him his Mir Bakhshi (Commander-in-Chief) and married his sister, Kota Rani, who had previously been the Empress consort of Suhadeva.[13][14] After suppressing this provocation, Rinchan faced Suhadeva, who had returned to the valley after Zulju's departure. He tried to subdue the people against Rinchan but was repulsed as the people still remembered his betrayal.[15][16] Soon after these events, the Lavanyas, a feudal tribe, challenged Rinchan but were defeated and forced to acknowledge him.[17]

The Emperor always had a council of cultured men and artisans in his court along with Muslim scholars and Hindu and Buddhist priests.[18] With an elusive yet sharp mind, Rinchan later in the same year in the hands of Bulbul Shah and adopted the title of Sultan Sadr'ud-Din, becoming the first Sultan of Kashmir.[19][20] Rawancandra also accepted Islam and became a close associate of the Sultan.[21] Shah Mir, a Kohistani Dard with partial Persian ancestry from Swat who settled in Kashmir in 1313 with his family, also entered the government of the Sultan and was a trusted councillor of the Sultan.[22] He even appointed him as the tutor of his son Haidar.[23][24] Sultan Sadr'ud-Din faced a surprise attack by Tukka, his former Vizier, and his followers. The preparators left a serious wound on the Sultan's head in between the struggle[25] but was rescued by his Vizier, Vyalaraja. The Sultan took the enemies by surprise and executed them. He also ripped open the wombs of their wives by the sword.[26]

Unluckily, the wound on the Sultan's head proved fatal, and he died in 1323.[25] He was buried near the Mosque he had built in Srinagar. After the Sultan's demise, Udayanadeva, the brother of Suhadeva, was called back from Swat to claim the throne on the orders of Kota Rani and the consent of Shah Mir and other nobles as Haidar was still a minor.[27][22]

Early Years (14th Century)

The rule of Udayanadeva lasted until his death in 1338 and was succeeded by his wife Kota Rani.[28][29] Shah Mir, in the meantime, strengthened his position in the cabinet of Udayanadeva.[30][22] Kota Rani appointed Bhatta Bhikshana, a powerful minister, as her Prime Minister, ignoring Shah Mir. She also moved her capital to Andarkot as Srinagar was, at that time, Shah Mir's stronghold.[31][32] This angered Shah Mir, who, at once, marched against her. At the outset of the war, he assassinated Bhikshana through a conspiracy and threatened Kota Rani to surrender and marry him.[33] Kota Rani, after seeing her troops and chiefs deserting her, reluctantly agreed. Shah Mir, at first, married her but, seeing the support she had in the kingdom, threw her and her children in prison while he himself ascended the throne as Sultan Shamsu'd-Din Shah.[34][35]

With the behest of the new rule, a new era, namely, the Kashmiri era, replaced the old Laukika era established by the Hindu Emperors.[36] Shamsu'd-Din set up Islamic roots in the early stages of the Sultanate,[37][38] appointing Muslim converts from Chak and Magre clan to major posts in the government.[39] After his death in 1342, the Sultanate passed on to Shamsu'd-Din's sons, Jamshid and Ali Sher.[40][41]

Jamshed, being the eldest, ascended the throne in 1342 and adopted the title of Sultan Jamshed Shah.[42] Jamshed worked on the state affairs and infrastructure, constructing various towns and villages and helping the people who were displaced in the Zulju invasion.[43][44] Meanwhile, Ali Sher, in 1343, after a failed attempt, usurped the throne and declared himself as Sultan as Jamshed was absent in Kamraj.[42] Ali Sher took on the title of Sultan Alau'd-Din Shah. Alau'd-Din was a just and an able ruler, bringing back the peasants who left Kashmir after the Zulju invasion and giving them shelter and bread.[45] He promulgated the first social and moral laws of the Sultanate, which helped not only the widows but the orphans as well.[45] He also defeated the Lavanyas, who rose back to prominence and reclaimed their land. After a reign of eleven years, Alau'd Din died in 1354 and was buried in his new town Alau'd-Dinpur.[46]

Expansion (14th and 15th centuries)

As a broad minded intellectual, Shihab'ud-Din, in the first half of his tenure, took care of the Sultanate and brought stability to the social and integral structure of Kashmir.[47] Full of animation and efficiency, Shihab'ud-Din set out to conquer its neighbour polities to expand and glorify his state. Marching through Baramulla, he first occupied Pakhli and went on to add Swat to his realm.[48] Next, he invaded the Khokhar dominated Pothohar, which extended from Attock to Sialkot. His commander-in-chief (Mir Bakhshi), Malik Candra, on the other hand, subdued Jammu, Kishtwar, Chamba, and other hill states.[49] Occupying all the bordering states in the south, Shihab'ud-Din went on to defeat the Dardic forces of Gilgit and the hill states of the north. Baltistan under the Maqpons and Ladakh under the Maryuls were, at that time, tributary states of Moghulistan and Tibet, respectively.[49] Shihab'ud-Din, along with Malik Candra, faced the Baltis and Kashgaris, defeating them easily and soundly.[49] He then moved towards Ladakh, beating the joint forces of Ladakhis and Tibetis.[49] After all these conquests, Shihab'ud-Din returned to Srinagar around 1370 and rather ought to live the rest of his life peacefully but just after some years, in 1373, he died due to a viral illness.[50]

Shihab'ud-Din's brother, Hindal, ascended the throne in 1373 as Sultan Qutbu'd-Din Shah.[51] Qutbu'd-Din defended his boundaries and lived most of his life as a "poet or a patron of learning."[51][52] Sayyid Ali Hamadani visited Kashmir in 1379 and was courteously welcomed by him. Hamadani stayed in Kashmir for three years, and his Kubrawiya teachings were widely accepted throughout Kashmir as the official order of the government.[53][54] Qutbu'd-Din was an old man when Shingara was born to him, who was, just after his birth, appointed as the heir apparent. Qutbu'd-Din died in 1389, and Shingara succeeded him as Sultan Sikandar Shah.[55]

Many Islamic scholars and preachers visited Kashmir in Sikandar's era, the most prominent one being Sayyid Muhammad Hamadani, the son of Sayyid Ali Hamadani Hamadani stayed in Kashmir for nearly twelve years and proceeded on a pilgrimage to Mecca.[56][57] Sikandar's era is remembered due to his interaction with the Turco-Mongol conqueror, Timur.[58] Sikandar was also involved in iconoclastic activities, sidelining and mistreating the Kashmiri Pandits.[59][60][61] These activities were continued by his son and successor Ali Shah, who, under the influence of his Wazir Saifuddin, forced the Pandits out of the valley. Shahi Khan, younger brother of Ali Shah, served as the Wazir of Ali Shah by defeating Hamsabhatta,[62] but when Ali Shah, in 1418, left for Mecca for a pilgrimage, he gave Shahi Khan the authority. Shahi Khan, seeing the dire situation of the sultanate, revolted and usurped the throne.[63] Ali Shah, with the help of his father-in-law and Raja of Jammu Bhim Dev, defeated Shahi Khan, which led to the start of a civil war between Shahi Khan and Ali Shah.[64] Shahi Khan, with the help and support from Jasrat Khokhar and Jam Tughlaq, turned out victorious and ascended the throne as Sultan Zainu'l-Abidin in 1420.[65]

Major contributions to the development of the sultanate were carried out in the reign of Zainu'l-Abidin.[66] Referred to as "Akbar of Kashmir" by modern authors, Zainu'l-Abidin espoused secular motives, calling back Pandits who left the valley in the reign of his father and brother.[67] Temples, which were in a critical state, were repaired and restored.[68] Relations with foreign countries were improved with Bengal, Gujarat, Sindh, and Punjab, forming a mutual alliance with Kashmir.[69] Trade and agriculture were enhanced, education was encouraged, and religious harmony was established between the two communities (Muslims and Pandits),[70][71][72][67] which was later known as Kashmiriyat. Zainu'l-Abidin was followed by a weak line of succession who were rather involved in their personal interests than the needs of the sultanate.[73]

Decline and Annexation (15th and 16th centuries)

After the reign of Haidar Shah (1470–1472) and Hasan Shah (1472–1484), the two sons of Zainu'l-Abidin, a power struggle started between Fath Shah and Muhammad Shah.[74][75] One of the two factions, at times, was supported by the Mughals while the other was backed by the nobles. Mughal commanders Kuchak Beg and Shaikh Ali Beg led an expedition under Babur to Kashmir in 1527, supporting Sikandar Shah II against Muhammad Shah.[76][77][78] Muhammad Shah, with the help of Lohar Magre and Kaji Chak, defeated the Mughals near Naushahra, whereas Sikandar Shah was blinded and later died in prison.[77] The Mughals again marched onto Kashmir with Kamran Mirza as their commander in 1531. Even though Srinagar was sacked, Kaji Chak alongwith his army defeated and routed Kamran back to India.[79] Another attempt to annexe Kashmir was carried out, but this time by Sultan Said Khan of Yarkent Khanate. Said Khan dispatched Haidar Dughlat, a Chagatai Turco-Mongol military general, to Kashmir in 1533.[80] Despite early defeats, Kashmiris defeated and repelled Turco-Mongol forces and forced them to sign a peace treaty in the same year.[81]

Dughlat later took the service of Mughal emperor Humayun and attacked Kashmir again in November 1540.[82] After six years of direct war, Kashmir was formally annexed in December 1540, and coins were issued in the name of Humayun.[83][84] Sultan Nazuk Shah was set up on the throne as a puppet.[85] Kaji Chak and Regi Chak, the only two generals who were fighting the Mughals and also fought in the Battle of Vahator on 13 August 1541, died in 1544 and 1546 respectively.[86] This system was regulated until 1551 when Kashmiris under Nazuk Shah and Daulat Chak hurdled their way through the Mughal defence and killed Dughlat in chaos.[87] The Shah Mirs were greatly weakened in these invasions and were controlled by other families, mainly the Chaks.[88] Habib Shah (1557–1561) was dethroned by Ghazi Shah Chak in 1561 and acquired the title of Muhammad Humayun, thus ending the rule of Shah Mir dynasty.[89][90][91]

Mughals under Akbar were busy subduing southern and eastern India and let the Chaks rule the valley. Akbar, in 1579, set his eyes on Kashmir after seeing the politics of the sultanate divided between Yousuf Chak, Sayyid Mubarak and Lohar Chak.[92] From 1581 till 1585, Akbar tried to force Yousuf to ratify his superiority and pay a visit to his court in Fatehpur Sikri.[93] All these efforts went in vain, and as a last resort, he sent an army of around 5000 under Raja Bhagwant Das in late 1585.[94] Bhagwant Das convinced Yousuf to surrender and sign a treaty with him, which stated that Yousuf would be reinstated as the Sultan while the forces will be withdrawn,[95] but when he was taken to Akbar, he was immediately imprisoned.[96]

Kashmiris chose Yakub Chak, Yousuf's son, as their Sultan in 1586 and continued the struggle.[97] Yakub Chak fled to Kishtwar when the Mughals attacked Kashmir again and was temporarily replaced by Shams Chak, Yousuf's second cousin.[98] In Yakub's absence, the Mughals now under a new commander, Qasim Khan and Kashmiris, under Shams Chak, faced each other in the Battle of Hastivanj.[99] The battle ended in Qasim's favour and the Mughal rule was formally instigated on 14 October 1586 while Shams and the Kashmiris were soundly defeated.[100] This came as a shock to Yakub, who joined forces with Shams and fought the Mughals for three years until both of them surrendered in the year 1589.[101][102]

Government

Majority of the crowning rituals of the sultanate were adopted from the previous Lohara and Utpala kings. The crown was made an exclusive privilege of the Sultan to execute orders and bestow robes of honour on nobles, officials and tributaries.

While Kashmiri monarchy was uniformly laid throughout the valley, Srinagar served as the most important station with the residence of the Sultan and the office of the Central Record Department. Royal forts at Suyyapur and Anantnag also became significant in later years of the sultanate.

Central Government

Even though the Sultan held the highest order of the Sultanate with executive, legislative and judicial powers in his hand, he still formed a central government to run his Sultanate effectively thus forming a council (Shura) of his most trusted ministers and appointed them accordingly.

  • Wazīr (Prime Minister) was the highest official in the state and was also responsible for the civil administration. He was the constant advisor to the Sultan. The Wazīr was granted excellent and sovereign executive and judicial powers and even led expeditions under the Sultan's orders.
  • Dīwan-i-Kul (Finance Minister) was a minister of the Sultan's council who held the economical, revenue, and financial powers of the Sultanate.
  • Mīr Bakhshī or Sipahsālār (Military Commander) was the commander of the military department and led the Sultan's army into foreign invasion or civil wars.
  • Akhūrbek (Chief Master of the Horse) was an important office granted to an officer of the Royal Stable. He controlled the Royal Stable and was obliged to take care of the Royal Horses.
  • Qāzī'l-Quzāt or Shaikhu'l-Islām (Minister of Religious and Judicial Affairs) was responsible for the religious harmony between the Muslims and the non-Muslims. As Kashmiriyat prevailed among the Kashmiris at that time, Qāzī'l-Quzāt played an important role in settling quarrels between the Kashmiri Pandits and the Kashmiri Muslims. Qāzī'l-Quzāt was also in charge of the judicial matters on personal and land disputes.
  • Mīr Ādil (Chief Magistrate) was a local judge appointed only in Srinagar to hear the magisterial cases. The cases which the Mīr Adl couldn't solve were sent to the Qāzī'l-Quzāt.
  • Khazānchī (Lord Treasurer) functioned as the head of the Sultan's treasury, which includes the capital of taxation and management.
  • Dabīr (Head of Department) was the most important rank in a government department. They were directly appointed by the Sultan as head of their respective department.
  • Amīr-i-Nāyak (Chief Guard) was the guardian of the passes leading into Kashmir. He was responsible for checking and administrating the Nāyaks (Guards) under him.

Provincial Government

The government of Srinagar was directly under the Sultan, while the two provinces, Kamraj and Maraj, were ruled by a Hākim (Governor) appointed directly by the Sultan. The Hākim was allowed to form his own government to maintain law and order, collect revenue, and dispense justice in the province.

  • Qāzi (State Judge) was the head of the judiciary of the province and was appointed by the centre.
  • Kotwāl (State Police Officer) was responsible for maintaining law and order in the province.
  • Muhtasib (State Ombudsman) was in charge of supervising the markets and looked after the morals of the people in the province.

District Government

Both the provinces were divided into different parganas (districts), each led by a Shiqdār (District Officer) who was allowed to form his own government. The district government was an exact replica of the provincial government under which the Qāzi/Muftī (Magistrate), Kotwāl (District Police Officer) and Muhtasib (District Ombudsman) exerted their powers.

Local Government

The pargana itself was further divided into different villages and towns. Each village had a Patwāri (Accountant) who was not only required for accountancy but also to preside over the local government.

  • Sarhang Zāda (Local Police Officer) was responsible for maintaining law and order in the village. At times, the Sarhang Zāda was appointed in more than one village.
  • Candalas (Watchmen) were appointed by the Sarhang Zāda who swept the houses in the day and acted as watchmen at night.
  • Muhtasib (Local Ombudsman) had a duty to oversee the conformity and social behaviour of the residents of the village.

List of dynasties

Bhoti dynasty (1320 – 1323)

No. Titular Name Personal Name Reign
1 Sadr'ud-Din Shah
صدر الدین شاہ		 Rinchan

رنچن

 1320 – 1323

Shah Mir dynasty (1339 – 1561)

No. Titular Name Personal Name Reign
2Shamsu'd-Dīn Shāh
شَمس اُلدِین شَاہ		Shāh Mīr
شَاہ مِیر		1339 – 1342
3Jamshīd Shāh
جَمشید شَاہ		Jamshīd
جَمشید		1342 – 1342
4Alāu'd-Dīn Shāh
عَلاؤ اُلدِین شَاہ		Alī Shēr
عَلی شیر		1343 – 1354
5Shihābu'd-Dīn Shāh
شِہاب اُلدِین شَاہ		Shīrashāmak
شِیراشَامَک		1354 – 1373
6Qutbu'd-Dīn Shāh
قُتب اُلدِین شَاہ		Hindāl
حِندَال		 1373 – 1389
7Sikandar Shāh
سِکَندَر شَاہ		Shingara
شِنگَرَہ		1389 – 1412
8Alī Shāh
عَلی شَاہ		Mīr Khān
مِیر خَان		1412 – 1418
9Zainu'l-'Ābidīn
زین اُلعَابِدِین		Shāhī Khān
شَاہی خَان		1418 – 1419
10Alī Shāh
عَلی شَاہ		Mīr Khān
مِیر خَان		1419 – 1420
11Zainu'l-'Ābidīn
زین اُلعَابِدِین		Shāhī Khān
شَاہی خَان		1420 – 12 May 1470
12Haider Shāh
حیدِر شَاہ		Hāji Khān
حَاجِی خَان		 12 May 1470 – 13 April 1472
13Hasan Shāh
حَسَن شَاہ		Hasan Khān
حَسَن خَان		 13 April 1472 – 19 April 1484
14Muhammad Shāh
مُحَمَد شَاہ		Muhammad Khān
مُحَمَد خَان		19 April 1484 – 14 October 1486
15Fatēh Shāh
فَتح شَاہ		Fatēh Khān
فَتح خَان		14 October 1486 – July 1493
16Muhammad Shāh
مُحَمَد شَاہ		Muhammad Khān
مُحَمَد خَان		July 1493 – 1505
17Fatēh Shāh
فَتح شَاہ		Fatēh Khān
فَتح خَان		1505 – 1514
18Muhammad Shāh
مُحَمَد شَاہ		Muhammad Khān
مُحَمَد خَان		1514 – September 1515
19Fatēh Shāh
فَتح شَاہ		Fatēh Khān
فَتح خَان		September 1515 – August 1517
20Muhammad Shāh
مُحَمَد شَاہ		Muhammad Khān
مُحَمَد خَان		August 1517 – January 1528
21Ibrahīm Shāh
اِبرَاہِیم شَاہ		Ibrahīm Khān
اِبرَاہِیم خَان		 January 1528 – April 1528
22Nāzuk Shāh
نَازُک شَاہ		Nādir Shāh
نَادِر شَاہ		 April 1528 – June 1530
23Muhammad Shāh
مُحَمَد شَاہ		Muhammad Khān
مُحَمَد خَان		June 1530 – July 1537
24Shamsu'd-Dīn Shāh II
شَمس اُلدِین شَاہ دوم		Shamsu'd-Dīn
شَمس اُلدِین		 July 1537 – 1540
25Ismaīl Shāh
اِسمَاعِیل شَاہ		Ismaīl Khān
اِسمَاعِیل خَان		 1540 – December 1540
26Nāzuk Shāh
نَازُک شَاہ		Nādir Shāh
نَادِر شَاہ		 December 1540 – December 1552
27Ibrahīm Shāh
اِبرَاہِیم شَاہ		Ibrahīm Khān
اِبرَاہِیم خَان		 December 1552 – 1555
28Ismaīl Shāh
اِسمَاعِیل شَاہ		Ismaīl Khān
اِسمَاعِیل خَان		 1555 – 1557
29Habīb Shāh
حَبِیب شَاہ		Habīb Khān
حَبِیب خَان		 1557 – 1561

[103]

Note: Muhammad Shah had five separate reigns from 1484 to 1537.[104]

Chak dynasty (1561 – 1579)

No. Titular Name Personal Name Reign
30 Muḥammad Humāyūn
محمد ہمایوں		 Ghazi Shah

غازی شاہ چَک

 1561 – 1563
31 Nasiru'd-Din

ناصرالدین

 Husain Shah

حُسین شاہ چَک

 1563 – 1570
32 Zahīru'd-Din Muhammad Alī

ظہیرالدین محمد علی

 Ali Shah

عَلی شاہ چَک

 1570 – December 1578
33 Nasiru'd-Din Ghazi

ناصرالدین غازی

 Yousuf Shah (1)

یُوسُفْ شاہ چَک

 December 1578 – February 1579

Baihaqi dynasty (1579)

No. Titular Name Personal Name Reign
34 Mubarak Ghazi
مبارک غازی		 Mubarak Baihaqi

مبارک بیهقی

 February 1579 – November 1579

Chak dynasty (1579 – 1589)

No. Titular Name Personal Name Reign
35 Lohar Ghazi

لوہر غازی

 Lohar Khan

لوہر خان چَک

 November 1579 – November 1580
36 Nasiru'd-Din Ghazi

ناصرالدین غازی

 Yousuf Shah (2)

یُوسُفْ شاہ چَک

 November 1580 – 14 February 1586
37 Ismā'īl Shah

اسماعیل شاہ

 Yakub Shah

یَعقوب شاہ چَک

 14 February 1586 – 8 August 1589
  • Yakub Shah was dethroned on 14 October 1586 by the Mughals but continued to use the title of the Sultan of Kashmir till 1589.

Military

The army under the Sultans consisted of the Standing Army, Provincial Army, Feudal Levies, and volunteers.

References

  1. ↑ Mohibbul Hassan. Kashmir Under The Sultans Mohibbul Hassan. p. 27.
  2. ↑ Nazim, Muhammad (1 January 2015). The Life and Times of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 92–3. ISBN 978-1-107-45659-4.
  3. ↑ Mohibbul Hassan. Kashmir Under The Sultans Mohibbul Hassan. p. 28.
  4. ↑ Marc Aurel Stein (1900). Kalhana's Rajatarangini Vol 1. pp. 107–119.
  5. 1 2 Mohibbul Hassan. Kashmir Under The Sultans Mohibbul Hassan. p. 34.
  6. ↑ al-Uthmani, Minhaj al-Din ibn Umar; Raverty, H. G. (13 August 2010). Tabakat-i-Nasiri. Gorgias Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-1-61719-755-0.
  7. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 96a–b.
  8. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 31b–32a.
  9. ↑ Mohibbul Hassan. Kashmir Under The Sultans Mohibbul Hassan. p. 36.
  10. ↑ Mohibbul Hassan. Kashmir Under The Sultans Mohibbul Hassan. p. 37.
  11. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 18. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  12. ↑ Mohibbul Hassan. Kashmir Under The Sultans Mohibbul Hassan. p. 38.
  13. ↑ BAHARISTAN E SHAHI. pp. 12b.
  14. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 99a.
  15. ↑ BAHARISTAN E SHAHI. pp. 13a.
  16. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 100a.
  17. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 19. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  18. ↑ Mohibbul Hassan. Kashmir Under The Sultans Mohibbul Hassan. p. 39.
  19. ↑ Hassan Gulam Khuihami (1911). Tarikh E Hasan Vol I. pp. 136b.
  20. ↑ BAHARISTAN E SHAHI. pp. 14b.
  21. ↑ Mohibbul Hassan. Kashmir Under The Sultans Mohibbul Hassan. p. 40.
  22. 1 2 3 BAHARISTAN E SHAHI. pp. 16a.
  23. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 104a.
  24. ↑ Muhammad Arif Qandhari, active 1577 (1993). Tarikh-i-Akbari. Internet Archive. Delhi : Pragati Publications. p. 425. ISBN 978-81-7307-013-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  25. 1 2 Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 23. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  26. ↑ Mohibbul Hassan. Kashmir Under The Sultans Mohibbul Hassan. p. 41.
  27. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 24. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  28. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 28. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  29. ↑ Mohibbul Hassan. Kashmir Under The Sultans Mohibbul Hassan. p. 42.
  30. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. pp. 26–27. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  31. ↑ BAHARISTAN E SHAHI. pp. 17a.
  32. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 105b.
  33. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 29. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  34. ↑ Mohibbul Hassan. Kashmir Under The Sultans Mohibbul Hassan. pp. 43–44.
  35. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 32. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  36. ↑ Asrar Alakhyar. Tarikh E Hassan Vol 3 Asrar Alakhyar. pp. 85b.
  37. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. pp. 26–27. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  38. ↑ Muhammad Arif Qandhari, active 1577 (1993). Tarikh-i-Akbari. Internet Archive. Delhi : Pragati Publications. pp. 426 (Vol III). ISBN 978-81-7307-013-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  39. ↑ Mohibbul Hassan. Kashmir Under The Sultans Mohibbul Hassan. p. 46.
  40. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 33. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  41. ↑ Muhammad Arif Qandhari, active 1577 (1993). Tarikh-i-Akbari. Internet Archive. Delhi : Pragati Publications. pp. 427 (Vol III). ISBN 978-81-7307-013-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  42. 1 2 Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  43. ↑ Nawadir Al Akhbar. pp. 23a.
  44. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 35. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  45. 1 2 Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  46. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  47. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  48. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  49. 1 2 3 4 Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  50. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  51. 1 2 Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  52. ↑ Muhammad Azam. Waqiat-I-Kashmir. pp. 17b.
  53. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  54. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 110b.
  55. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  56. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  57. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  58. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  59. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  60. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 60. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  61. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 113b.
  62. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 69. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  63. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  64. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  65. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 70. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  66. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  67. 1 2 Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  68. ↑ Dutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 87. ISBN 978-81-212-0037-0.
  69. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  70. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 119b.
  71. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 247. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  72. ↑ Pandit, K. N. (1 January 1991). BAHARISTAN-I-SHAHI A Chronicle of Mediaeval Kashmir (1st ed.). Firma KLM Private Limited. pp. 51b.
  73. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 96. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  74. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  75. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  76. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 136a.
  77. 1 2 Pandit, K. N. (1 January 1991). BAHARISTAN-I-SHAHI A Chronicle of Mediaeval Kashmir (1st ed.). Firma KLM Private Limited. pp. 91a-b.
  78. ↑ Nawadir Al Akhbar. pp. 61b–2a.
  79. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. pp. 123–124. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  80. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. pp. 126–127. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  81. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  82. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. pp. 131–132. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  83. ↑ Pandit, K. N. (1 January 1991). BAHARISTAN-I-SHAHI A Chronicle of Mediaeval Kashmir (1st ed.). Firma KLM Private Limited. pp. 107a-b.
  84. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 145a.
  85. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  86. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  87. ↑ Pandit, K. N. (1 January 1991). BAHARISTAN-I-SHAHI A Chronicle of Mediaeval Kashmir (1st ed.). Firma KLM Private Limited. pp. 116a-b.
  88. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 145. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  89. ↑ Pandit, K. N. (1 January 1991). BAHARISTAN-I-SHAHI A Chronicle of Mediaeval Kashmir (1st ed.). Firma KLM Private Limited. pp. 125a.
  90. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 153b.
  91. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  92. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  93. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 183a.
  94. ↑ Abu-fazl (1 January 1989). Akbar Nama. Atlantic. p. 715. ISBN 978-81-7156-048-6.
  95. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 177. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  96. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 191a.
  97. ↑ Pandit, K. N. (1 January 1991). BAHARISTAN-I-SHAHI A Chronicle of Mediaeval Kashmir (1st ed.). Firma KLM Private Limited. pp. 176a.
  98. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 183b.
  99. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  100. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 198a.
  101. ↑ Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 201a–202a.
  102. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  103. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (2005) [1959]. Kashmir Under the Sultans (Reprinted ed.). Delhi: Aakar Books. p. 325. ISBN 978-81-87879-49-7. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  104. ↑ "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Sultans of Kashmir".
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