Khalji Revolution

Jalaluddin enthroned as Sultan of Delhi
DateFebruary—June 1290
Location
Delhi Sultanate
Result

Khalji faction victory

Belligerents
Khalji faction Mamluk dynasty
Turkish faction
Commanders and leaders
Jalaluddin Khalji
Alauddin Khalji
Ikhtiyaruddin (WIA)		 Muiz ud din Qaiqabad X
Shamsuddin Kayumars X
Aitmar Surkah †
Aitmar Kachhan †

The Khalji Revolution,[1] also spelled Khilji Revolution,[2] was a military coup and period of political and societal change in the Delhi Sultanate. It began as a result of the death of Mamluk sultan Balban and the failure of his successors to properly rule the Delhi Sultanate. The conflict began and ended in 1290 when Jalaluddin Khalji seized complete power, deposing the Mamluks and beginning the reign of the Khalji dynasty.

Following the death of Balban, his minor grandson Qaiqabad ascended the throne of Delhi. Qaiqabad fell into debauchery, taking little care for ruling. Qaiqabad later became ill and paralyzed, leading to the accession of his infant son, Shamsuddin Kayumars. During this period turmoil, factions rose in the court of the Mamluks, between the Turkish faction led by Aitmar Surkah, and the Khalji faction, led by Jalaluddin Khalji.

Conflict erupted between both factions, with the Khaljis abducting Shamsuddin, the infant king. The Turkish party and the Khaljis met in battle, which saw the defeat of the Turks. Following the defeat, much of the Turkic nobility quickly defected to the Khalji faction. With the infant sultan under him, and Qaiqabad nearing his death, Jalaluddin asserted himself as regent and wazir, eventually seizing complete power and toppling Shamsuddin from power, ascending the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in June 1290.

With the success of the revolution, the Khalji dynasty replaced the Mamluk dynasty, and began ruling the Delhi Sultanate. Jalaluddin ruled for only six years until he was assassinated by his nephew, Alauddin Khalji. The revolution saw the end of Turkish dominance over the nobility of the Delhi Sultanate.

Background

Map of the Mamluk Sultanate in 1250

The Mamluks were established in 1206 after the Ghurid Empire led numerous invasions into India, being founded by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, who was a slave of Ghurid overlord, Muhammad of Ghor. Qutb ud-Din led numerous campaigns against neighboring Indian kingdoms under Muhammad of Ghor's reign, earning him the right to rule over the Delhi Sultanate, and the establishment of the Mamluk dynasty. The height of the Mamluks was during the reign of Iltutmish, who significantly expanded the Sultanate and led numerous reforms.[3] Eventually, Balban ascended the throne in 1266, and continued to upkeep the strength of the Delhi Sultanate.[4] Balban died in 1286, being succeeded by his grandson, Qaiqabad. Qaiqabad was raised to follow Islamic principles. However, as he ascended the throne, he followed a hedonistic lifestyle. As a result, the administrative reforms demonstrated by Balban declined.[5] Capitalizing off of Qaiqabad's complication, Malik Nizamuddin became the de facto regent of the Sultanate, and began consolidating power for himself by placing loyalists under him in powerful positions.[6]

Bughra Khan, the father of Qaiqabad, noticing that Nizamuddin was obtaining power rapidly, as well as having Qaiqabad kill other rival Amirs through intrigue, wrote letters to Qaiqabad informing him of the possible threat. Qaiqabad failed to recognize his father's advise, and as a result, Bughra Khan decided to personally meet his son from his residence in Bengal. Amir Khusrau and Barani differ on the accounts of how they met. Amir Khusrau states that Bughra Khan wished to seize Delhi for himself. Upon advancing to Bihar, Qaiqabad marched out of the city and prepared for conflict. Barani states that Qaiqabad himself first drew up an army to meet his father. Nizamuddin attempted to cause conflict between both of them, but failed in doing so. Qaiqabad and Bughra met on the banks of the Gogra river in 1288.[7] Bughra Khan informed Qaiqabad to abstain from drinking wine and engaging in sexual pleasure with concubines, as well as informing him to remove Nizamuddin from his position from power. After his father left, Qaiqabad attempted to refrain from engaging in drinking wine and debauchery, but returned to indulging in such soon after. Nizamuddin was informed by Qaiqabad to return to Multan to oversee administrative affairs there. However, after delaying his trip, Turkish officers that were secretly given permission by Qaiqabad, poisoned and killed Nizamuddin.[8][9]

The assassination of Nizamuddin damaged the administrative capabilities of the government. As a result, leading to Qaiqabad calling upon Jalaluddin Khalji, who was the governor of Samana. Jalaluddin was well distinguished in the Delhi Sultanate for his participation in conflicts against the Mongols in their attempts to invade India.[10] Upon Jalaluddin's arrival, Qaiqabad bestowed upon him the title of Shaista Khan,[lower-alpha 1] as well as naming him minister of war, and ceding the governorship of Baran.[12][13] However, Jalaluddin's position became increasingly coveted by other Turkish nobles, who were against other groups from rising to power as they saw him as a low-born Afghan,[14] although in reality, himself being of Turko-Afghan origin.[15][16] Qaiqabad was one day paralyzed under unknown circumstances, beginning a power struggle in the court of the Delhi Sultanate, ultimately leading to Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan placing Qaiqabad's infant son, Shamsuddin Kayumars, on the throne of Delhi in February 1290. With the ascension of Shamsuddin, two factions arose in the Mamluk court. The Turkish faction, led by Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan; and the Khalji faction, led by Jalaluddin Khalji. The Turkish faction wished to see Turks hold a monopoly of power over the Delhi Sultanate, while the Khalji faction sought power for themselves.[17][18][19]

Revolution

Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan began a conspiracy against Jalaluddin's faction, with a list of all nobles they wished to put to death being formed, and Jalaluddin at the top. Ahmad Chap, the Hajib of the Mamluks, informed Jalaluddin of the arising plot. Believing that Delhi was no longer safe, Jalaluddin left for Baharpur, assembling men from Baran with the excuse that a Mongol invasion was looming.[20][21]

Following this, intrigue was done by Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan, which began with a letter being sent to Jalaluddin addressing him as emperor.[22] Another account states that it was just a letter summoning him to court.[21] Nonetheless, as Kachhan arrived to Jalaluddin's camp, he was pulled from his horse and killed by Alauddin Khalji, officially starting conflict between the two factions.[22][21][23]

Jalaluddin's sons rode quickly to Delhi, accompanied by around 50 horsemen. The force entered Delhi and seized Shamsuddin forcefully, before departing for Baharpur. Aitmar Surkah chased the force in pursuit and began battle near the same area. In one engagement, Ikhtiyaruddin, the eldest son of Jalaluddin, was thrown from his horse, and engaged in single combat against Aitmar Surkah. Aitmar Surkah quickly struck Ikhtiyaruddin two or three times, but none of these strikes were fatal, allowing Ikhtiyaruddin to draw his sword and decapitate Aitmar Surkah. Following this, a revolt broke out in Delhi. The rebels wished to march to Baharpur, and return Shamsuddin to power. However, Malikul'umra halted the rebels at the gate of Badaon, preventing them from leaving to fight the Khaljis due to his own sons being held captive by Jalaluddin. With the death of Aitmar Surkah, and the rebels having been dispersed, many of the Turkish Amirs switched sides to the Khaljis, significantly adding to their strength.[24][21]

With Jalaluddin unopposed, he had Qaiqabad, who was clinging unto life due to his illness, killed by drowning in the Yamuna River by wrapping him in a carpet and throwing it over on 1 February 1290. Despite his powerful position, Jalaluddin initially allowed Shamsuddin to continue ruling, seating him at Baharpur while also opening negotiations with Malik Chajju, a nephew of Balban. Jalaluddin offered Malik Chajju to serve as regent, to which Malik Chajju instead preferred the governorship of Kara, and upon approval from Jalaluddin, left for it. Jalaluddin then took up office of becoming the regent and wazir of the Sultanate. Eventually, Jalaluddin seized complete power, crowning himself in Kilughari palace, a suburb in Delhi, in June 1290. Shamsuddin was thrown in prison following this, dying sometime afterward.[24][25]

Aftermath

Coinage of Jalaluddin Khalji

With the rise of the Khalji dynasty and the ascension of Jalaluddin, Turkish dominance power over the nobility of the Sultanate was crushed, with many non-Turks becoming predominant instead of Turks.[26][27] The Khaljis would rule over the Delhi Sultanate from 1290 to 1320, being replaced by the Tughlaq dynasty. Jalaluddin only ruled for six years before being assassinated by his ambitious nephew, Alauddin Khalji, who would significantly expand the Sultanate in his reign from 1296 to 1316.[14][28]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Shaista, meaning beautiful in Pashto.[11]

Citations

  1. ↑ Unesco 1998, p. 272.
  2. ↑ Chaurasia 2002, p. 28.
  3. ↑ Jackson 2003, p. 26.
  4. ↑ Mehta 1979, pp. 76–91.
  5. ↑ Lal 1967, p. 2.
  6. ↑ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, pp. 304–305.
  7. ↑ Ali 1968, p. 70.
  8. ↑ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, pp. 307–308.
  9. ↑ Lal 1967, pp. 5–6.
  10. ↑ A. L. Srivastava 1966, p. 140.
  11. ↑ Brown 2023, p. 1.
  12. ↑ Jackson 2003, p. 82.
  13. ↑ Mehta 1979, p. 128.
  14. 1 2 Mahajan 2007, p. 121.
  15. ↑ Fisher 2018, p. 86.
  16. ↑ Chandra 2007, p. 93.
  17. ↑ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 1979, p. 2.
  18. ↑ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, pp. 308–309.
  19. ↑ Lal 1967, pp. 6–7.
  20. ↑ Lal 1967, pp. 7–8.
  21. 1 2 3 4 Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, p. 309.
  22. 1 2 Lal 1967, p. 8.
  23. ↑ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 1979, pp. 2–3.
  24. 1 2 Lal 1967, p. 9.
  25. ↑ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, pp. 309–311.
  26. ↑ Bowman 2000, p. 267.
  27. ↑ Mehta 1979, p. 127.
  28. ↑ Chaurasia 2002, pp. 27–28.

References

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