Lavender
Lavender flowers with bracts
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Subfamily: Nepetoideae
Tribe: Ocimeae
Genus: Lavandula
L.
Type species
Lavandula spica
Synonyms[1]
  • Stoechas Mill.
  • Fabricia Adans.
  • Styphonia Medik.
  • Chaetostachys Benth.
  • Sabaudia Buscal. & Muschl.
  • Plectranthus mona lavender
  • Isinia Rech.f.

Lavandula (common name lavender) is a genus of 47 known species of flowering plants in the mint family, Lamiaceae. It is native to the Old World and is found in Cape Verde and the Canary Islands, and from Europe across to northern and eastern Africa, the Mediterranean, southwest Asia to India.[2]

Many members of the genus are cultivated extensively in temperate climates as ornamental plants for garden and landscape use, for use as culinary herbs, and also commercially for the extraction of essential oils.[3] Lavender is used in traditional medicine and as an ingredient in cosmetics.

Description

Plant and leaves

The genus includes annual or short-lived herbaceous perennial plants, and shrub-like perennials, subshrubs or small shrubs.[4]

Leaf shape is diverse across the genus. They are simple in some commonly cultivated species; in other species, they are pinnately toothed, or pinnate, sometimes multiple pinnate and dissected. In most species, the leaves are covered in fine hairs or indumentum, which normally contain essential oils.[4]

Flowers

Flowers are contained in whorls, held on spikes rising above the foliage, the spikes being branched in some species. Some species produce colored bracts at the tips of the inflorescences. The flowers may be blue, violet, or lilac in the wild species, occasionally blackish purple or yellowish. The sepal calyx is tubular. The corolla is also tubular, usually with five lobes (the upper lip often cleft, and the lower lip has two clefts).[5]

Nomenclature and taxonomy

Lavandula stoechas, L. pedunculata, and L. dentata were known in Roman times.[6] From the Middle Ages onwards, the European species were considered two separate groups or genera, Stoechas (L. stoechas, L. pedunculata, L. dentata) and Lavandula (L. spica and L. latifolia), until Linnaeus combined them. He recognised only five species in Species Plantarum (1753), L. multifida and L. dentata (Spain) and L. stoechas and L. spica from Southern Europe. L. pedunculata was included within L. stoechas.

By 1790, L. pinnata and L. carnosa were recognised. The latter was subsequently transferred to Anisochilus. By 1826, Frédéric Charles Jean Gingins de la Sarraz listed 12 species in three sections, and by 1848 eighteen species were known.[6]

One of the first modern major classifications was that of Dorothy Chaytor in 1937 at Kew. The six sections she proposed for 28 species still left many intermediates that could not easily be assigned. Her sections included Stoechas, Spica, Subnudae, Pterostoechas, Chaetostachys, and Dentatae. However, all the major cultivated and commercial forms resided in the Stoechas and Spica sections. There were four species within Stoechas (Lavandula stoechas, L. dentata, L. viridis, and L. pedunculata) while Spica had three (L. officinalis (now L. angustifolia), L. latifolia and L. lanata). She believed that the garden varieties were hybrids between true lavender L. angustifolia and spike lavender (L. latifolia).[7]

Lavandula has three subgenera:[8][9][10]

  • Subgenus Lavandula is mainly of woody shrubs with entire leaves. It contains the principal species grown as ornamental plants and for oils. They are found across the Mediterranean region to northeast Africa and western Arabia.
  • Subgenus Fabricia consists of shrubs and herbs, and it has a wide distribution from the Atlantic to India. It contains some ornamental plants.
  • Subgenus Sabaudia constitutes two species in the southwest Arabian peninsula and Eritrea, which are rather distinct from the other species, and are sometimes placed in their own genus Sabaudia.

In addition, there are numerous hybrids and cultivars in commercial and horticultural usage.[4]

The first major clade corresponds to subgenus Lavandula, and the second Fabricia. The Sabaudia group is less clearly defined. Within the Lavandula clade, the subclades correspond to the existing sections but place Dentatae separately from Stoechas, not within it. Within the Fabricia clade, the subclades correspond to Pterostoechas, Subnudae, and Chaetostachys.

Thus the current classification includes 39 species distributed across 8 sections (the original 6 of Chaytor and the two new sections of Upson and Andrews), in three subgenera (see table below). However, since lavender cross-pollinates easily, countless variations present difficulties in classification.

Etymology

The English word lavender came into use in the 13th century, and is generally thought to derive from Old French lavandre, ultimately from Latin lavare from lavo (to wash),[11] referring to the use of blue infusions of the plants.[12] The botanic name Lavandula as used by Linnaeus is considered to be derived from this and other European vernacular names for the plants.

The names widely used for some of the species, "English lavender", "French lavender" and "Spanish lavender" are all imprecisely applied. "English lavender" is commonly used for L. angustifolia, though some references say the proper term is "Old English lavender". The name "French lavender" may refer to either L. stoechas or to L. dentata. "Spanish lavender" may refer to L. stoechas, L. lanata, or L. dentata.

Cultivation

Honey bee on flower

The most common form in cultivation is the common or English lavender Lavandula angustifolia (formerly named L. officinalis). A wide range of cultivars can be found. Other commonly grown ornamental species are L. stoechas, L. dentata, and L. multifida (Egyptian lavender).

Because the cultivated forms are planted in gardens worldwide, they are occasionally found growing wild as garden escapes, well beyond their natural range. Such spontaneous growth is usually harmless, but in some cases, Lavandula species have become invasive. For example, in Australia, L. stoechas has become a cause for concern; it occurs widely throughout the continent and has been declared a noxious weed in Victoria since 1920.[13] It is regarded as a weed in parts of Spain.[14]

Lavenders flourish best in dry, well-drained, sandy or gravelly soils in full sun.[15] English lavender has a long germination process (14–28 days) and matures within 100–110 days. All types need little or no fertilizer and good air circulation. In areas of high humidity, root rot due to fungus infection can be a problem. Organic mulches can trap moisture around the plants' bases, encouraging root rot. Gravelly materials such as crushed rocks give better results.[16] It grows best in soils with a pH between 6 and 8.[17] Most lavender is hand-harvested, and harvest times vary depending on intended use.[17]

Lavender oil

Commercially, the plant is grown mainly for the production of lavender essential oil. English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) yields an oil with sweet overtones and can be used in balms, salves, perfumes, cosmetics, and topical applications.[18] Lavandula × intermedia, also known as lavandin or Dutch lavender, hybrids of L. angustifolia and L. latifolia.[19] are widely cultivated for commercial use since their flowers tend to be bigger than those of English lavender and the plants tend to be easier to harvest.[20] They yield a similar essential oil, but with higher levels of terpenes including camphor, which add a sharper overtone to the fragrance, regarded by some as of lower quality than that of English lavender.

The US Food and Drug Administration considers lavender as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for human consumption.[21] The essential oil was used in hospitals during World War I.[15]

Phytochemicals

Some 100 individual phytochemicals have been identified in lavender oil, including major contents of linalyl acetate (30–55%), linalool (20–35%), tannins (5–10%), and caryophyllene (8%), with lesser amounts of sesquiterpenoids, perillyl alcohols, esters, oxides, ketones, cineole, camphor, beta-ocimene, limonene, caproic acid, and caryophyllene oxide.[18][21][22] The relative amounts of these compounds vary considerably among lavender species.[18]

Culinary use

Lavender-flavored cupcakes

Culinary lavender is usually English lavender, the most commonly used species in cooking (L. angustifolia 'Munstead'). As an aromatic, it has a sweet fragrance with lemon or citrus notes.[23] It is used as a spice or condiment in pastas, salads and dressings, and desserts.[24][25] Their buds and greens are used in teas, and their buds, processed by bees, are the essential ingredient of a monofloral honey.[26]

Use of buds

For most cooking applications the dried buds, which are also referred to as flowers, are used. Lavender greens have a more subtle flavor when compared to rosemary.[27]

The potency of the lavender flowers increases with drying which necessitates more sparing use to avoid a heavy, soapy aftertaste. Chefs note to reduce by two-thirds the dry amount in recipes that call for fresh lavender buds.[23][28]

Lavender buds can amplify both sweet and savory flavors in dishes and are sometimes paired with sheep's milk and goat's milk cheeses. Lavender flowers are occasionally blended with black, green, or herbal teas. Lavender flavors baked goods and desserts, pairing especially well with chocolate. In the United States, both lavender syrup and dried lavender buds are used to make lavender scones and marshmallows.[29][30]

Lavender buds are put into sugar for two weeks to allow the essential oils and fragrance to transfer; then the sugar itself is used in baking. Lavender can be used in breads where recipes call for rosemary. Lavender can be used decoratively in dishes or spirits, or as a decorative and aromatic in a glass of champagne. Lavender is used in savory dishes, giving stews and reduced sauces aromatic flair. It is also used to scent flans, custards, and sorbets.[23]

In honey

The flowers yield abundant nectar, from which bees make a high-quality honey. Monofloral honey is produced primarily around the Mediterranean Sea, and is marketed worldwide as a premium product. Flowers can be candied and are sometimes used as cake decorations. It is also used to make "lavender sugar".[26]

Other uses

Lavender products for sale at the San Francisco Farmers Market.

Flower spikes are used for dried flower arrangements. The fragrant, pale purple flowers and flower buds are used in potpourris. Lavender is also used as herbal filler inside sachets used to freshen linens. Dried and sealed in pouches, lavender flowers are placed among stored items of clothing to give a fresh fragrance and to deter moths.[31] Dried lavender flowers may be used for wedding confetti. Lavender is also used in scented waters and sachets.

In history and culture

The ancient Greeks called the lavender herb νάρδος: nárdos, Latinized as nardus, after the Syrian city of Naarda (possibly the modern town of Duhok, Iraq). It was also commonly called nard.[32] The species originally grown was L. stoechas.[4]

During Roman times, flowers were sold for 100 denarii per pound, which was about the same as a month's wages for a farm laborer, or fifty haircuts from the local barber. Its late Latin name was lavandārius, from lavanda (things to be washed), from lavāre from the verb lavo (to wash).[11][33]

Culinary history

Spanish nard (Old French: "spykenard de spayn le pays"), referring to L. stoechas, is listed as an ingredient in making a spiced wine, namely hippocras, in The Forme of Cury.[34]

Lavender was introduced into England in the 1600s. It is said that Queen Elizabeth prized a lavender conserve (jam) at her table, so lavender was produced as a jam at that time, as well as used in teas both medicinally and for its taste.[23]

Lavender was not used in traditional southern French cooking at the turn of the 20th century. It does not appear at all in the best-known compendium of Provençal cooking, J.-B. Reboul's Cuisinière Provençale.[35] French lambs have been allowed to graze on lavender as it is alleged to make their meat more tender and fragrant.[23] In the 1970s, a blend of herbs called herbes de Provence was invented by spice wholesalers. Culinary lavender is added to the mixture in the North American version.[36]

In the 21st century, lavender is used in many world regions to flavor tea, vinegar, jellies, baked goods, and beverages.[37]

Bunches of lavender for sale, intended to repel insects

Herbalism

The German scientific committee on traditional medicine, Commission E, reported uses of lavender flower in practices of herbalism, including its use for restlessness or insomnia, Roemheld syndrome, intestinal discomfort, and cardiovascular diseases, among others.[38]

Health precautions

The U.S. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) states that lavender is considered likely safe in food amounts, and that topical uses may cause allergic reactions.[39] NCCIH does not recommend the use of lavender while pregnant or breastfeeding because of lack of knowledge of its effects.[39] It recommends caution if young boys use lavender oil because of possible hormonal effects leading to gynecomastia.[39][40][41]

A 2007 study examined the relationship between various fragrances and photosensitivity, stating that lavender is known "to elicit cutaneous photo-toxic reactions", but does not induce photohaemolysis.[42]

Adverse effects

Some people experience contact dermatitis, allergic eczema, or facial dermatitis from the use of lavender oil on skin.[18][39]

Taxonomic table

Different lavender cultivars grown at Snowshill, Cotswolds.

This is based on the classification of Upson and Andrews, 2004.

Lavender field in Carshalton, London Borough of Sutton.
Lavender field in Hitchin, England, UK

I. Subgenus Lavendula Upson & S.Andrews

i. Section Lavandula (3 species)
subsp. angustifolia from Catalonia and the Pyrenees.
subsp. pyrenaica from southeast France, adjacent areas of Italy, Spain, Croatia etc.
Hybrids
  • Lavandula × chaytorae Upson & S.Andrews (L. angustifolia subsp. angustifolia × L. lanata)
  • Lavandula × intermedia Emeric ex Loisel. (L. angustifolia subsp. angustifolia × L. latifolia)
ii. Section Dentatae Suarez-Cerv. & Seoane-Camba (1 species)
  • Lavandula dentata L. from eastern Spain, northern Algeria and Morocco, southwestern Morocco.
var. dentata (rosea, albiflora), candicans (persicina) [Batt.]
iii. Section Stoechas Ging. (3 species)
subsp. stoechas from mostly coastal regions of eastern Spain, southern France, western Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Mediterranean Turkey, Levantine coast, and most Mediterranean islands.
subsp. luisieri native to coastal and inland Portugal and adjacent Spain.
subsp. pedunculata – Spain and Portugal.
subsp. cariensis – from western Turkey and southern Bulgaria.
subsp. atlantica – from montane Morocco.
subsp. lusitanica – southern Portugal and southwestern Spain.
subsp. sampaiana – from Portugal and southwest Spain.
  • Lavandula viridis L'Her. – native to southwest Spain, southern Portugal, and possibly also to Madeira.
Intersectional hybrids (Dentatae and Lavendula)
  • Lavandula × heterophylla Viv. (L. dentata × L. latifolia )
  • Lavandula × allardii
  • Lavandula × ginginsii Upson & S.Andrews (L. dentata × L. lanata )

II. Subgenus Fabricia (Adams.) Upson & S.Andrews

iv. Section Pterostoechas Ging. (16 species)
  • Lavandula multifida L. – is native to a wide range including Morocco, southern Portugal and Spain, norther Algeria, Tunisia, Tripolitania, Calabria and Sicily, with isolated populations in the Nile valley.
  • Lavandula canariensis Mill., from the Canaries.
subsp. palmensis – from La Palma.
subsp. hierrensis – from El Hierro.
subsp. canariensis – from Tenerife.
subsp. canariae – from Gran Canaria.
subsp. fuerteventurae – from Fuerteventura.
subsp. gomerensis – from La Gomera.
subsp. lancerottensis – from Lanzarote.
  • Lavandula minutolii Bolle – Canary Isles.
subsp. minutolii
subsp. tenuipinna
  • Lavandula bramwellii Upson & S.Andrews – from Gran Canaria.
  • Lavandula pinnata L. – from the Canaries and also Madeira.
  • Lavandula buchii Webb & Berthel. – Tenerife.
  • Lavandula rotundifolia Benth. – Cape Verde Islands.
  • Lavandula maroccana Murb. – Atlas mountains of Morocco.
  • Lavandula tenuisecta Coss. ex Ball – Atlas mountains in Morocco.
  • Lavandula rejdalii Upson & Jury – Morocco.
  • Lavandula mairei Humbert – Morocco.
  • Lavandula coronopifolia Poir. – This has a wide distribution, from Cape Verde across North Africa, the northeast of tropical Africa, Arabia to eastern Iran.
  • Lavandula saharica Upson & Jury – southern Algeria and nearby regions.
  • Lavandula antineae Maire – central Sahara region.
subsp. antinae
subsp. marrana
subsp. tibestica
  • Lavandula pubescens Decne. – from Egypt and Eritrea, Sinai, Israel and Palestine, Jordan, western Arabian peninsula to Yemen.
  • Lavandula citriodora A.G. Mill. – southwestern Arabian peninsula.
Hybrids
  • Lavandula × christiana Gattef. & Maire (L. pinnata × L. canariensis)
v. Section Subnudae Chaytor (10 species)
  • Lavandula subnuda Benth. – from the mountains of Oman and the United Arab Emirates.
  • Lavandula macra Baker – southern Arabian peninsula and Somaliland.
  • Lavandula dhofarensis A.G. Mill. – from Dhofar in southern Oman.
subsp. dhofarensis
subsp. ayunensis
  • Lavandula samhanensis Upson & S.Andrews – Dhofar, Oman.
  • Lavandula setifera T. Anderson – from coastal regions of Yemen and Somaliland.
  • Lavandula qishnensis Upson & S.Andrews – southern Yemen.
  • Lavandula nimmoi Benth. – from Socotra.
  • Lavandula galgalloensis A.G. Mill. – Somaliland.
  • Lavandula aristibracteata A.G. Mill. – Somaliland.
  • Lavandula somaliensis Chaytor – Somaliland.
vi. Section Chaetostachys Benth. (2 species)
  • Lavandula bipinnata (Roth) Kuntze – from the Deccan peninsula and central north India.
  • Lavandula gibsonii J. Graham – Western Ghats, India.
vii. Section Hasikenses Upson & S.Andrews (2 species)
  • Lavandula hasikensis A.G. Mill. – Oman.
  • Lavandula sublepidota Rech. f. – Far, in southern Iran.

III. Subgenus Sabaudia (Buscal. & Muschl.) Upson & S.Andrews

viii. Section Sabaudia (Buscal. & Muschl.) Upson & S.Andrews (2 species)
  • Lavandula atriplicifolia Benth. – western Arabian peninsula, Egypt.
  • Lavandula erythraeae (Chiov.) Cufod. – from Eritrea.

References

  1. ↑ "Lavandula L., Sp. Pl.: 572 (1753)". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2022. Retrieved 2 November 2022.
  2. ↑ Forney, Julie Martens (n.d.). "Outdoor flowering plants – mona lavender". HGTV. Retrieved 19 October 2018.
  3. ↑ "Plectranthus Mona lavender". Plant Finder. Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 19 October 2018.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Upson, T.; Andrews, S. (2004). The Genus Lavandula. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2004. ISBN 9780881926422. Retrieved 30 March 2012.
  5. ↑ Bailey, L. H. (1924). Manual of Cultivated Plants. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.
  6. 1 2 Lis-Balchin M, ed. (2002). Lavender: The genus Lavandula. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 9780203216521.
  7. ↑ Chaytor D A. A taxonomic study of the genus Lavandula. 1937
  8. ↑ Habàn, Miroslav (16 May 2023). "Lavandula Species, Their Bioactive Phytochemicals, and Their Biosynthetic Regulation". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 24 (10): 8831. doi:10.3390/ijms24108831. PMC 10219037. PMID 37240177.
  9. ↑ Moja S, Guitton Y, Nicole F, et al. (November 2016). "Genome size and plastid trnK-matK markers give new insights into the evolutionary history of the genus Lavandula L." Plant Biosystems. 150 (6): 1216–1224. Bibcode:2016PBios.150.1216M. doi:10.1080/11263504.2015.1014006. S2CID 84974038 – via Ebsco.
  10. ↑ Héral, Bénédicte; Stierlin, Émilie; Fernandez, Xavier; Michel, Thomas (2021). "Phytochemicals from the genus Lavandula: a review". Phytochemistry Reviews. 20 (4): 751–771. Bibcode:2021PChRv..20..751H. doi:10.1007/s11101-020-09719-z. S2CID 224898995 – via SpringerLink.
  11. 1 2 Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879). "lavo". A Latin Dictionary. Perseus Digital Library.
  12. ↑ "Lavender". Online Etymology Dictionary. 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
  13. ↑ Carr, G.W; Yugovic, J.V; Robinson, K.E. (1992). Environmental Weed Invasions in Victoria – conservation and management implications. Victoria, Australia: Department of Conservation and Environment and Ecological Horticulture.
  14. ↑ Csurches, S.; Edwards, R. (January 1998). National Weeds Program, Potential Environmental Weeds in Australia, Candidate Species for Preventative Control (PDF). Queensland Department of Natural Resources. ISBN 0-642-21409-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2007.
  15. 1 2 Grieve, M. (1971). A Modern Herbal. Vol. II. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-22799-5.
  16. ↑ Brenzel, Kathleen Norris. The Sunset Western Garden Book (7th ed.).
  17. 1 2 Ernst, Matt (2017). "Lavender" (PDF). University of Kentucky Center for Crop Diversification.
  18. 1 2 3 4 "Lavender". Drugs.com. 1 November 2018. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  19. ↑ Mark Griffiths, Index of Garden Plants (Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, 1994. ISBN 0-333-59149-6),
  20. ↑ National Non-Food Crops Centre. "Lavender" Archived 16 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 23 April 2009.
  21. 1 2 "Lavender". Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed), National Library of Medicine, US National Institutes of Health. 3 December 2018. PMID 30000925. Retrieved 15 August 2019.
  22. ↑ Umezu, Toyoshi; Nagano, Kimiyo; Ito, Hiroyasu; Kosakai, Kiyomi; Sakaniwa, Misao; Morita, Masatoshi (1 December 2006). "Anticonflict effects of lavender oil and identification of its active constituents". Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. 85 (4): 713–721. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.10.026. PMID 17173962. S2CID 21779233.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 Lavender WhatsCookingAmerica.net
  24. ↑ Pasta With Shredded Vegetables and Lavender Recipe, New York Times, 27 August 2008
  25. ↑ M. G. Kains (1912). American Agriculturist (ed.). Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses (English). Orange Judd Company.
  26. 1 2 "Cooking with Lavender – Purple Haze Lavender (Sequim, WA)". Purple Haze Lavender. Archived from the original on 17 April 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2008.
  27. ↑ "Cooking with Lavender?". Chowhound. 24 June 2009. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
  28. ↑ "Cooking With Lavender", Bon Appetit, 27 March 2015
  29. ↑ Stradley, Linda (22 April 2015). "Lavender Scones, Whats Cooking America". What's Cooking America. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
  30. ↑ Maclain, Ben (2 May 2015). "Lavender Marshmallows – Havoc In The Kitchen". Havoc in the Kitchen. Archived from the original on 30 October 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
  31. ↑ McCray, Carole. "Lavender – the loveliest of herbs". The Register-Guard. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  32. ↑ The origin of most of these quotes comes from Dr. William Thomas Fernie, in his book "Herbal Simples" (Bristol Pub., second edition, 1897), page 298:
    'By the Greeks the name Nardus is given to Lavender, from Naarda, a city of Syria near the Euphrates, and many persons call the plant "Nard." St. Mark mentions this as Spikenard, a thing of great value. In Pliny's time, blossoms of the Nardus sold for a hundred Roman denarii (or L.3 2s. 6d.) the pound. This Lavender or Nardus was called Asarum by the Romans, because it was not used in garlands or chaplets. It was formerly believed that the asp, a dangerous kind of viper, made Lavender its habitual place of abode, so that the plant had to be approached with great caution.'
  33. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary (second ed.). 1989. Note however that Upson and Andrews refer to research on bathing in the Roman Empire, and state that there is no mention of the use of lavender in works on this subject.
  34. ↑ "The Forme of Cury". Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 29 October 2020. PUR FAIT YPOCRAS. XX.IX. XI. Treys Unces de canett. & iii unces de gyngeuer, spykenard de Spayn le pays dun denerer, garyngale, clowes, gylofre, poeurer long, noiez mugadez, maziozame cardemonij de chescun i quart' douce grayne & de paradys stour de queynel de chescun dim unce de toutes, soit fait powdour &c.
  35. ↑ J.-B. Reboul; Cuisinière Provençale (1910)
  36. ↑ Laget, F. (2005). "From its Birthplace in Egypt to Marseilles, an Ancient Trade: Drugs and Spices". Diogenes. 52 (3): 131–139. doi:10.1177/0392192105055941. S2CID 144212782.
  37. ↑ Charles, Denys J. (2012), "Lavender", Antioxidant Properties of Spices, Herbs and Other Sources, New York, NY: Springer New York, p. 365, ISBN 9781461443100, retrieved 5 September 2021
  38. ↑ "Expanded Commission E monograph: Lavender flower". cms.herbalgram.org. Integrative Medicine Communications, Germany; from the American Botanical Council. 2000. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  39. 1 2 3 4 "Lavender". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. 1 August 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
  40. ↑ "Oils 'make male breasts develop'". British Broadcasting Corporation. February 2007. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
  41. ↑ "More evidence essential oils 'make male breasts develop'". British Broadcasting Corporation. March 2018. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
  42. ↑ Placzek, M; Frömel, W; Eberlein, B; Gilbertz, KP; Przybilla, B (2007). "Evaluation of phototoxic properties of fragrances". Acta Dermato-Venereologica. 87 (4): 312–6. doi:10.2340/00015555-0251. PMID 17598033. Also, oils of lemon, lavender, lime, sandalwood, and cedar are known to elicit cutaneous phototoxic reactions, but lavender, sandalwood, and cedar oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our assay...Lavender oil and sandalwood oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our test system. However, a few reports on photosensitivity reactions due to these substances have been published, e.g. one patient with persistent light reaction and a positive photo-patch test to sandalwood oil

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