Features

Map of Oak Forest site showing house locations

Map of House 1

A total of 8 house structures and 17 features were identified during the 1958 excavations. The house structures ranged from 25 to 47.5 feet long and 12–15 feet wide. Some of the houses had pit features as well (fire pits and refuse pits).^[2]

Most of the features had ash and carbonized material within their fill, and are classified as fire pits. Feature 15 was a bell-shaped storage pit that contained a fragment of iron interpreted by the excavators to be early European in origin.^[2]

An additional 55 features were identified in the 1979 excavations. They noted little variation in most of the pits and they may be interpreted as fire, storage or refuse pits.^[1] Feature 125 in particular was noted to be a roasting pit similar to those found at other Upper Mississippian-affiliated sites of Zimmerman,^[3][4] Rader,^[5] Knoll Spring,^[6] Schwerdt,^[7][8][9] Elam,^[7][8] Griesmer^[10] and Moccasin Bluff.^[11] At Griesmer the carbonized remains of white water lily (Nymphaea odorata) tubers were recovered and at Schwerdt and Elam, the carbonized remains of American Lotus (Nelumbo lutea)tubers were recovered from this type of roasting pit.^{[1][10][7][8][9]}

Plant Remains

No plant remains were reported from the 1958 excavations. This is because flotation data recovery techniques were not in wide use among archaeologists of that era. The 1979 excavations took 42 samples for flotation analysis (24 from features and 18 from midden contexts) and as a result a wide variety of plant remains (wood charcoal, nutshell, maize, seeds and bulbs) were found which contribute immensely to our knowledge of Upper Mississippian subsistence.^[12]

Plant analysis of flotation data is based primarily on carbonized remains; on plant material that was burned in a fire pit or hearth but not completely consumed. The carbonized materials are rendered much more resistant to decay and thus are often available for the archaeologist to examine. Not all of the carbonized plant remains are from food items; some of the small seeds recovered may have been intrusive due to the normal seed dispersal process (i.e. the wind just blew them into the fire). Plant material that was not carbonized was of course subject to the normal process of decay and would not be available to the archaeologist except under extraordinary conditions.

Summary of Findings:^[12]

• Wood charcoal - the vast majority of all flotation samples (from 82-95%) were naturally from the wood that was used as firewood. Each sample showed a great deal of diversity and although oak and hickory were dominant, maple, ash, American hornbeam, American elm, American hop hornbeam, poplar and hawthorn were also present. This mix reflects the trees present in the surrounding deciduous forests and oak savannas.
• Nutshell - was ubiquitous and present in every sample. Hickory nut and black walnut were the dominant species; hazelnut and acorn were also present. Trace amounts of butternut were present in a few features.
• Maize - was the most abundant of the food plant remains. Kernels, cupules and cob fragments of the 8- or 10-row variety were present in all samples.
• Cultivated seeds - 80% of all seeds recovered were of goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri), little barley (Hordeum pusillum) and knotweed (Polygonum erectum). This indicates that the Upper Mississippian residents were participants in the Eastern Agricultural Complex (EAC) of cultivated seed plants that predated the introduction of maize in parts of North America. The EAC plants were first identified in Middle Woodland contexts and their use continued to the early Historic period.
• Other cultivated plants - squash, sunflower and the common bean were also present.
• Wild rice - was also present. There is abundant evidence of Native American utilization of this resource in early Historic accounts.^[13]
• Fruit seeds - plum, sumac, grape, hawthorn and ground cherry were also noted.
• Bulb - a carbonized bulb of what appears to be wild onion was recovered.
• Noneconomic seeds - seeds from several plants that are present in small quantities and do not have a food or other economic use are presumed to be intrusive; such as Desmodium (ground bulrush), Galium (tick trefoil), Xanthium (cocklebur) and Hypoxis hirsuta (yellow star-grass). Even these intrusive seeds are useful to the archaeologist, because they can be used to help recreate the environment present at the time of site occupation. Some of the intrusive seeds present at Oak Forest indicate a moist marshy environment was nearby, and others indicate a habitat of open fields and oak savannas.

Animal Remains

Remains from several species were recovered from the site. The main species present were deer and fish; also present were turtle, dog, bald eagle, sandhill crane, otter and others. These remains were not modified into tools like the bone tools described in the Artifacts section below, and may be considered food remains or, in the case of the dog, the remains of ceremonial activities. Dog sacrifice and dog meat consumption was observed to have ceremonial and religious implications in early Native American tribes.^[14] In addition, bald eagles, sandhill cranes and otters were known to have spiritual significance in historic Native American religious groups/ceremonies such as the Midewiwin.^[15]

Artifacts

Artifacts recovered from the site included:^[1]

• Pottery - total of 1,270 sherds were recovered in the 1958 excavations, and another 3,347 were recovered in 1979. The pottery artifacts will be discussed in more detail below.
• Stone artifacts - including projectile points, scrapers (including humpback scrapers), gravers, graver drills, knives, cores, utilized flakes and a chopper. Of the projectile points, the most numerous category was the small triangular Madison point.
• Ground stone artifacts - including grinding stones, hammerstones/manos, metates, abraders and a piece of hematite that may be a rubstone.
• Bone and antler tools - including scapula hoes, an antler wrench and a harpoon.
• Seashell - a unique duck effigy pendant made out of seashells was present at the site.
• Early Historic artifacts - in 1958, a single iron fragment was found which was thought to be an early Historic artifact of European manufacture. In 1979 many more such remains were found due largely to the use of flotation; including 2 tubular sheet brass hair pipes (similar to the copper specimens found at the Dumaw Creek site^[16]), 3 fragments of crumpled sheet brass, 15 iron pieces (6 nails, 1 bolt, 1 washer, a strap with pendant tabs, 2 sheet fragments and 4 unidentified fragments), and a single white glass bead similar to those found at Iroquoian sites in Ontario and New York State (where they have been dated to the early 1600s).

The non-pottery artifacts found at an archaeological site can provide useful cultural context as well as a glimpse into the domestic tasks performed at a site; ceremonial or religious activities; recreational activities; and clothing or personal adornment.^[10]

Some of the most prominent and diagnostic non-pottery artifacts are presented here in more detail:^[1]

Material	Description	Image	Qty	Function / use	Comments / associations
Chipped stone	Small triangular points (aka Madison points)		33	Hunting/fishing/warfare	Also known as “arrowheads”; are thought to be arrow-tips for bows-and-arrows. The usage of the bow-and-arrow seems to have greatly increased during the Late Woodland, probably as a result of increased conflict.[17][18]
Chipped stone	Biface blades/knives		6	Domestic function / cutting applications	Typical of Upper Mississippian sites, particularly Huber and Oneota (Orr focus)
Chipped stone	Humpback end scraper		22	Domestic function / processing wood or hides	Typical of Upper Mississippian sites, particularly Huber and Oneota (Orr focus); present at Moccasin Bluff in Michigan where they are called "thick steep-edge" scrapers
Chipped stone	Drills		2 expanding-base, 5 double pointed	Domestic function / processing wood or hides	2 types are present; expanding base (left) and double pointed (right), which are both common types in Upper Mississippian contexts
Stone	Arrow shaft straightener		3	Domestic function / straightening arrow shafts for bows-and-arrows	Typical at Upper Mississippian sites
Antler	Antler wrench		1	Domestic function / specific use unknown	Similar artifacts were found at the nearby Anker site
Bone	Bone harpoon		1	Fishing function	Similar harpoons made of antler were recovered from the Fisher and Fifield sites
Bone	Scapula hoes		28 (fragmentary)	Domestic function / Agricultural-horticultural or general digging tool	Common at Fisher and Oneota sites; they may have been used to dig out the pit features present at Oak Forest.
Marine shell	Marine shell duck effigy pendant		4	Art work / Personal Adornment and/or Ceremonial application	Well-made, unique artifact; found in a burial nearby copper bangles that were probably suspended from it at one time.

Upper Mississippian Huber Pottery

Huber Phase pottery

Archaeologists often find pottery to be a very useful tool in analyzing a prehistoric culture. It is usually very plentiful at a site and the details of manufacture and decoration are very sensitive indicators of time, space and culture.^[19]

Although the Huber tradition was well-known by archaeologists for decades following the original excavations at the Huber site in 1929, a formalized typology was not developed until Charles Faulkner devised one in his 1972 report on the Griesmer site in northwestern Indiana, just to the east of Chicago.^[10]

Huber pottery is characterized by shell-tempered, plain surface pottery with globular vessel shape and restricted orifices with everted rims. Some vessels also have strap handles. Decoration (when present) usually consists of vertical or obliquely applied incised lines generally running from the lip to the shoulder. Rarely, surfaces are cordmarked or smoothed over cordmarked. The top of the lip is either plain or decorated with fine to wide notching. A minority also have punctate decoration, mostly in combination with the trailed lines.^{[1][10][20][21]}

The 1958 excavations recovered 1,270 sherds, almost all of it Huber ware. Surface was plain on 98% of sherds and cordmarked on 2%. Half of the lips were unnotched. The most common rim profile reported was everted with flat lip and either wide-notched or unnotched lip. Rarely, sherds were red-slipped on the exterior and/or interior.^[2]

An additional 3,347 sherds were recovered in the 1979 excavations, of very similar attributes. None of these sherds were reported to be cordmarked except for 3 sherds that were classified as Danner series. 45% of the rims were unnotched and of the decorated sherds, 93% were incised with fine lines.^[20]

Following Faulkner’s typology,^[10] this is the proportion of the pottery types at the site:^[15]

• Huber Plain - 88%, characterized by a plain surface
• Huber Trailed - 7%, characterized by a plain surface decorated with fine incised lines
• Huber Bold - 2%, characterized by a plain surface decorated with wide lines, possibly finger-trailed
• Huber Cordmarked - 2.5%, characterized by a cordmarked surface
• Fisher - 0%
• Other types - 0.5%