Pakhangba
primordial divine being
Member of Meitei dragons
The sacred idols of God Pakhangba and his divine consort kept inside the Pakhangba Temple in the Kangla Fort in Imphal
Other namesPakhangpa
AffiliationMeitei mythology (Manipuri mythology) and Meitei religion (Sanamahism)
Major cult centerPakhangba Temple, Kangla
Abodeheaven and earth
SymbolMeitei dragons
AdherentsMeitei people
Texts
GenderMale
RegionAncient Kangleipak (early Manipur)
Ethnic groupMeitei ethnicity
FestivalsLai Haraoba
Personal information
Parents
SiblingsLainingthou Sanamahi, Irai Leima, Khoriphaba, Khunu Leima, Ngaleima, Nganu Leima, Nongshaba, Nongthang Leima, Phouleima (Phouoibi), Shapi Leima, Thumleima
ConsortNongthang Leima
ChildrenMangang, Luwang, Khuman, and others (or Salai Taret Apokpas)
Equivalents
Greek equivalentTyphon

Pakhangba (Meitei: ꯄꯥꯈꯪꯕ, romanized: /paakhangba/, Old Manipuri: ꯄꯥꯈꯪꯄ, romanized: /paakhangpa/) is a primordial deity, often represented in the form of a Meitei dragon, in Meitei mythology and religion.[1] He is depicted in the heraldry of Manipur kingdom, which originated in paphal (Meitei: ꯄꯥꯐꯜ), mythical illustrations of the deity in the traditional beliefs of Sanamahism in Manipur.[2] Among the Meiteis, it is believed that the ancestor of one of the clans manifested himself as the Pakhangba.[3][4][5]

The identity of the deity is often fused with Nongda Lairen Pakhangba, the first ruler of the Ningthouja dynasty.[6][7] The title Pakhangba was also used by other kings in the history of Manipur.[8]

Etymology

In Meitei language, “Pakhangba” literally means “the one who knows his father”.[9]

“Pakhangba” is also translated as "one who has realised his father".[10]

Description

Shakespear describes "that Pakhangba, who is the Chief of all the Umanglais [forest gods or Meitei gods], is a snake divinity' and greatest of all the gods".[lower-alpha 1][11]

Pakhangba statue

Scholars like Parratt suggest that "each king is Pakhangba, but Pakhangba is not each king".[lower-alpha 2] In a similar manner, Jelle J. P. Wouters stated that "pythons are Pakhangba, but Pakhangba is not python (instead he is a god who assumes the form of a python)".[12]

Mythology

Birth

Affairs

Enthronement

Pakhangba and his elder brother Sanamahi were told by their father that the one who could circumambulate the universe seven times and reach him first will be given the throne of the universe. Immediately, Sanamahi advanced for the circumambulation of the universe. Pakhangba, besides being the younger brother, was lesser in strength. He was given a favor by his mother Leimarel Sidabi,[13] by giving him the wisdom that circumambulation of his father's throne is equivalent to the circumambulation of the entire universe. So, he did as he was told.[14]

His father was satisfied with Pakhangba's realisation of the knowledge of Him. So, Pakhangba was named so as the term "Pakhangba" means "one who has realised his father" and was enthroned.[15]

Conflicts with elder brother

Transformation into serpentine dragon

Rule

Incarnations

Iconography

Pakhangba has different symbolic representations as well as iconographic representations. He is represented in the form of a serpent with the antlers of Sangai (Meitei for 'Brow antlered deer').[16]

Integration of the Ningthouja, Luwang and Chakpa cultures

The dragon form of Pakhangba signifies the cultural synthesis of two different totemic belief systems, which are the worship of serpents and stags.[17]

Two Hiyang Hiren (Meitei for 'Meitei royal boats') in the middle and two Tanna Hee (Meitei for 'Meitei commoners' boats') in the sideways, kept inside the Hijagang (Meitei for 'Boatyard') in the Kangla Fort in Imphal

Serpents are the totem creatures of the Ningthouja dynasty of the Meitei ethnicity. In accordance to their culture, the families of the very clan dynasty are not allowed to consume any fishes or plants that look like serpents, as a mark of respect for their ancestors. On the other hand, Sangai is associated with the Luwang clan of the Meitei ethnicity. The Chakpa people, who are a part of the Meitei community, also regard deers as their totem creatures.[18]

Pakhangba in the royal boat

Legend says that Pudangkoi Khutkoiba, a king of the Luwangs, was once transformed into a Sangai deer. Accidentally, he was killed down by his own younger brother, not knowing his true identity. After recognising him, the head along with horns of the very Sangai deer was brought and preserved in the royal palace. In an inauguration of a royal boat of a Luwang king, the preserved horned head was decoratively installed on the stern of the royal boat. After the cultural integration of the Luwangs and the Meiteis, this tradition was also integrated into the making of the Meitei Hiyang Hiren (Meitei for 'royal boat'). Simultaneously, the sides of the boat is decorated to resemble the body of serpentine dragon, thereby looking like the feature of deity Pakhangba.[19]

Integration of the Ningthouja, Luwang and Khuman cultures

The integration of the Ningthouja, Luwang and Khuman cultures are shown in the Hiyang Hiren (Meitei for 'royal boat') as the head (cephalic body part) of Kwakpa, the chief of Khumans, was installed in the boat, in addition to the Luwang totem Sangai and the Ningthouja totem serpent.[20]

Paphal representations

In the post-Khagemba era, the representations of Pakhangba in the form of Paphal (Meitei for 'mystical illustrations for different forms of coiled serpents or dragons biting their own tails or ouroboros') became prominent.[21]

In Meitei architecture

An illustration of a traditional building based on Meitei architecture, highlighting the Chirong, a sacred symbol for the antlers of deity Pakhangba

In the traditional Meitei architecture of ancient Kangleipak (early Manipur), the most important Meitei cultural element in building a house is the decoration for the front roof with a design resembling a deer's horn (Meitei: Chirong). Chi (Meitei for 'horn') is derived from the word Machi (Meitei for 'antler'), and rong (Meitei for 'branching') is derived from the word rongba (Meitei for 'posterior directed branch'). The Chirong symbolises the antler premeditated on his head of the deity Pakhangba.[22]

Beliefs

In relation to Pakhangba, Meitei language has two commonly used words to refer to the snakes or serpents. The words are "lin" and "lairen". Lin is used to refer to small snakes, usually the poisonous snakes. On the other hand, "Lairen" is used to refer to the large snakes, usually the pythons, as well as any big mythical snakes.[23]

Whenever anyone encounters a snake, they usually attribute it to the "lin" or "lairen" or any other honorifics dedicated to the very divine serpents. In some cases, they simply attribute it to lai (Meitei for 'god'), lainingthou (Meitei for 'god-kings'), or directly "Pakhangba", though not always, ibudhou (Meitei for 'great-grandfather'). However, they never use iben (Meitei for 'grandmother').[24]

The pythons are related to Pakhangba in the world of charms and fortunes. Many people narrated about their encounters with pythons (or Pakhangba), after which their lives are said to be changed in dramatic ways. These encounters are either physical, oneiric, mediatic, or ritually enacted.[25]

There are some people who believe in the “millenarian” return of Pakhangba. According to their beliefs, Pakhangba will re-unite people of the plains and the hills of Kangleipak (Meitei for 'Manipur'), politically and religiously, and would solve the decades-old tensions and violences happening in the realm. Pakhangba will bless good fortune to the people of the realm.[26]

Cult

The cult of Pakhangba extraordinarily has an ability to integrate different deities. There are numerous deities, whose names are sufficed with the word "Pakhangba", starting from cosmological deities to ancestral deities. Notable ones are Nongda Lairen Pakhangba, Tangcha Lee-la Pakhangba, Leinung Loncha Pakhangba, Saram Tangkhul Pakhangba, Loidam Thaja Pakhangba and Laiyingthou Pakhangba.[27][28]

Deified Meitei kings

Many influential rulers of Kangleipak (Meitei for 'Manipur') were deified and worshipped as Pakhangba or one of his divine forms since ancient and medieval times, similar to the case of historical queens deified and integrated into the cult of ancient Meitei goddess Yumjao Lairembi.[29]

Naothingkhong as Pakhangba

In Thangmeiband region of Kangleipak (Meitei for 'Manipur'), there is a deity named Naothingkhong Pakhangba worshipped by the Meitei people. He is the deified Meitei king Naothingkhong (c. 5th century CE).[30]

Khagemba as Pakhangba

After deification, Meitei king Khagemba is also worshipped as a form of Pakhangba at Malom, a town located 5 kilometers distant from Imphal.[31]

Tangkhul deities

Deity Saram Tangkhul Pakhangba and his wife, Saram Tangkhul Nurabi are associated with the Tangkhul people of north eastern parts of Kangleipak (Meitei for 'Manipur'). The Tangkhul deities were given a prominent position in the Umang Lai pantheon of the Meitei people. Besides being identified as a form of deity Pakhangba, in some cases, Saram Tangkhul is also identified with Nongpok Ningthou.[32]

Consorts

Deity Pakhangba has numerous consorts, belonging to different communities and ethnicities.

One legend of Pakhangba says that he has seven wives, who give birth to the seven clans of Meitei ethnicity. It signifies the integration of different communities and ethnicities into one single nation and the categorization of them into seven clans.[33]

Lady Liksanu Saphabi belonging to Kabui people and Thangal people, lady Khamlang Taobi belonging to Chothe people, lady Chotenu belonging to Kom people and lady Leiyoi Nurabi belonging to Langmeidong are a few of the numerous consorts of the Meitei deity Pakhangba.[34] Lady Saram Tangkhul Nurabi is the consort of Tangkhul Pakhangba, a Tangkhul deity, who is a divine form of Pakhangba.[35]

Texts

Deity Pakhangba is mentioned in numerous ancient Meitei language texts, including but not limited to the "Thanglon Thangchat",[36] the "Pakhangba Laihui", the "Pakhangba Phambal",[37][38][39] the "Pakhangba Naoyom",[40][41] the "Pakhangba Nongkarol",[42][43] etc.

Thanglon Thangchat

Pakhangba Laihui

Pakhangba Phambal

Pakhangba Naoyom

Pakhangba Nongkarol

In heraldry

Pakhangba, as a heraldic dragon, was present in all the former royal flags and coats of arms of Manipur. The kingdom of Manipur had a set of two flags, a white one and a red one. All featured the Pakhangba dragon in the centre, although not as prominently in the latter flags.[44]

In traditional dance and music

Keiyen is an ancient Meitei language song describing the conflict between Pakhangba (Apanba) and his elder brother Sanamahi (Asheeba), as a conflict between a tiger and a cock respectively, having mythological and symbolic importance to the Meitei culture. It is symbolically represented in the Ke-kre-Chongba performance.[45]

Ke Kre Ke! Mo Mo!
Yangen Shamba Shyao Shyao
Tokpaga Kanbaga
Keiga Yenga Hou Ha
Yenkhong Phate
Chasillo
Laigi Yen ni Chaphade

— [46]

Younger brother Pakhangba's attempt to escape, along with his seven goddesses, from the elder brother Sanamahi is depicted in the song.[lower-alpha 3][47]

Its interpretation by the different minstrels, maibas and maibis, have many variations. Metaphorically, the song is about a cock (Pakhangba) being pursued by a tiger (Sanamahi).[48]

In Ancient Meitei language, a tiger is termed as “Kei”. “Yangen” is a name of a small wild bushy shrub plant. “Shamba” means “to traverse” in Meitei.[49] “Shyao Shyao” refers to the ancient Meitei onomatopoeic word for the sound produced while traversing the bushy way by the tiger.[50] “Yengkhong Phate” refers to the ominous sound of the cock. It implies that Pakhangba's deeds are not good and so, he deserves to be devoured as a punishment. But, that very cock is not an ordinary one, as it belongs to Lai (Meitei for 'God').[51] The last line indicates that the entire actions of everyone are done as a divine will of God, thereby showing the ultimate power of the Almighty God and his process of the creation of the entire universe.[52]

The Meitei philosophy associated with Keiyen is imbibed in the dances performed in the Lai Haraoba. Later, it gradually evolved into present day dance of the Thabal Chongba.[53]

Festivals

Lai Haraoba

Pakhangba, being considered as one of the Umang Lai deities, is honoured with the celebration of the Lai Haraoba festival by the Meitei people.[54][55][56]

Pakhangba Cheng Hongba

Pakhangba Cheng Hongba is a traditional Meitei religious festival celebrated annually in honour of deity Pakhangba, to bring peace and tranquility among the mankind. One of the most notable celebrations is organised by the Utra Shanglen Sana Konung and the Pacha Loishang by offering flowers to Nongshaba, Pakhangba and Yumjao Lairembi. This festival is celebrated on regular basis in the Sana Konung, widely believed to be organised since the era of King Nongda Lairen Pakhangba.[57]

It has been participated by a renowned cultural institute named "Atinga" since 2017.[58]

In politics

In 1992, Meitei King Okendrajit Singh, the then ruler of Manipur Kingdom, converted from Hinduism to traditional Meitei religion to become a revivalist, mentioning the name of "Pakhangbaism".[59]

In 2020, Leisemba Sanajaoba, the son of the former king Okendrajit, took oath of joining as an MP inside the Rajya Sabha on behalf of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), mentioning the name of deity Pakhangba, besides Sanamahi and Govindajee (Krishna).[60]

The state administrative office of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in Imphal houses a shrine dedicated to the deity Pakhangba. The BJP-ruled state government of Manipur developed the sacred sites of Pakhangba and performed rituals in the Kangla.[61] Other opposition political parties are also seen in engaging religious activities in relation to deity Pakhangba.[62]

During his 2019 Parliamentary election campaign, Kaiku Rajkumar, a renowned politician-turned actor of Meitei cinema, visited the Pakhangba Temple, Kangla and publicly performed laibau chenba (Meitei for 'ritual divination').[63]

In Bangladesh

In the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh, a temple dedicated to deity Pakhangba, was constructed during the time of Maharaja Gambhir Singh,[64] on a brick platform, having 15.5 m in breadth, 37 m in length and 90 cm in thickness, facing southwards. It is 24 m tall. According to its architectural design, it has three parts, which are the foundation (base) part, the sanctum sanctorum and the conical portion of the roof, inclining at 75 degree. It also has low relief arts depicting peacock, moon and sun on the upper part of its entrance door. The eastern wall is carved with the relief arts depicting moon, horse and cow.[65][66]

In Myanmar

A few holy shrines dedicated to deity Pakhangba are located in Myanmar. One notable example is that of the Tadalel (Tadaley) village in Amarapura township in Mandalay Division. In 2023, the Myanmar Meitei Development Association (MMDA), an organization based in Mandalay, Myanmar, requested to Nongthombam Biren, the then Chief Minister of Manipur, to give assistance for the preservation and protection of the holy site.[67]

In Tripura

In Tripura Kingdom, a temple dedicated to deity Pakhangba was built during the coronation of Tripuri King Radha Kishore Manikya, highlighting the cultural heritage of the Meitei people in Tripura, under the influence of Meitei queens. Both the mother and the wife of King Radha Kishore Manikya are Meitei women.[68]

Pakhangba is still worshipped in present times in the Pakhangba Temple, located near the Royal Palace of Tripura.[69]

During the reign of Meitei king Marjit Singh in Manipur Kingdom, Raja Borothakur Krishna Kishore ruled Tripura Kingdom. The Tripuri king's first and second queens are both Meitei women. The first queen is Sija Chandrakala Devi, a Meitei princess and the second queen is a Meitei Brahmin lady, thereby also known as "Bamon Leima". With their strong influences, Meitei culture flourished in Tripura, with the proliferation of cults dedicated to different Meitei deities, most prominently deity Pakhangba, at the region of Bonmalipur.[70]

In the 2018 edition of the Sangai festival held in Manipur, twenty artistes, standing and dancing in the form of a human chain, presented a lively 30 metres long image of deity Pakhangba, dancing on the stage for 45 minutes, depicting the origin of the human beings, as adapted from the Lai Haraoba festival performances, while presenting a theatrical show titled Laigi Machasing (Meitei for 'Children of God'), choreographed by Sangeet Natak Akademi's Ustad Bismillah Khan Yuva Puraskar Awardee Sinam Basu.[71]

A Mumbai-based group of musical artists titled "Serpents of Pakhangba", named after the deity Pakhangba himself, formed in 2019,[72] is continuously producing musical works related to Meitei mythology and Meitei folklore.[73][74][75]

See also

Bibliography

  • Pakhangba Phamlup (in Manipuri). India: Publications Divisions Reforms, Imphal. 2009.
  • Chaoba, Kangbam (1985). Pakhangba Naoyom (in Manipuri). Digital Library of India.
  • Bheigya Singh, Yengkhom (1985). Pakhangba (in Manipuri). Digital Library of India.
  • Kala Meitei, Pukhrambam. Pakhangba (in Manipuri). Digital Library of India.
  • Ibobi, laikhuram (1995). Pakhangba Laining (in Manipuri). Digital Library of India.
  • Bihari Singh, Huirem (2012). Chothe Thangwai Pakhangba (in Manipuri). Digital Library of India.
  • Kokngangsana, Rajkumar (1955). Kanglei Langba Pakhangba (in Manipuri). Ningthou Macha Manisana Heirangkhoithong Keibung Imphal.
  • Ngamba, Chongthamcha (1989). Mapugee Matik Mayai (in Manipuri).
  • Khwairakpam, Biren; Chingakham, Dinachandra (8 October 2018). The Lai of Manipur: Andro and Sengmai. Independently Published. ISBN 978-1-7266-9002-7.
  • Parratt, John (2017). The Coils of Pakhangba: A Culture History of Meeteis. Mittal Publications. ISBN 978-81-8324-823-5.

Notes

  1. ↑ Shakespear, 1913: 423-443
  2. ↑ c.f. Parratt, 2013 [1978]: 11
  3. ↑ Singh, 1993b, p. 72

References

  1. ↑ Bahadur, Mutua; Santabai, Y. (1989). "Tribal Art of Manipur".
  2. ↑ Samiti, Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna (2007). "Journal of the Assam Research Society".
  3. ↑ "Proceedings of North East India History Association". 2001.
  4. ↑ Bahadur, Mutua; Santabai, Y. (1989). "Tribal Art of Manipur".
  5. ↑ Hastings Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 11
  6. ↑ Nayar, V. K. (2005). Crossing the Frontiers of Conflict in the North East and Jammu and Kashmir: From Real Politik to Ideal Politik. Shipra Publications. ISBN 9788175412187.
  7. ↑ Jain, Jyotindra (1998). "Other Masters: Five Contemporary Folk and Tribal Artists of India".
  8. ↑ Samiti, Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna (2007). "Journal of the Assam Research Society".
  9. ↑ Mehrotra, Deepti Priya (8 July 2009). Burning Bright Irom Sharmila. Penguin UK. p. 39. ISBN 978-81-8475-153-6.
  10. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 95.
  11. ↑ Wouters, Jelle J. P. (16 May 2022). Vernacular Politics in Northeast India: Democracy, Ethnicity, and Indigeneity. Oxford University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-19-267826-3.
  12. ↑ Wouters, Jelle J. P. (16 May 2022). Vernacular Politics in Northeast India: Democracy, Ethnicity, and Indigeneity. Oxford University Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-19-267826-3.
  13. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 94.
  14. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 95.
  15. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 95.
  16. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 84.
  17. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 84.
  18. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 84.
  19. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 85.
  20. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 94.
  21. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 85.
  22. ↑ Bhattacharyya, Rituparna (29 July 2022). Northeast India Through the Ages: A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Prehistory, History, and Oral History. Taylor & Francis. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-000-62390-1.
  23. ↑ Wouters, Jelle J. P. (16 May 2022). Vernacular Politics in Northeast India: Democracy, Ethnicity, and Indigeneity. Oxford University Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-19-267826-3.
  24. ↑ Wouters, Jelle J. P. (16 May 2022). Vernacular Politics in Northeast India: Democracy, Ethnicity, and Indigeneity. Oxford University Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-19-267826-3.
  25. ↑ Wouters, Jelle J. P. (16 May 2022). Vernacular Politics in Northeast India: Democracy, Ethnicity, and Indigeneity. Oxford University Press. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-19-267826-3.
  26. ↑ Wouters, Jelle J. P. (16 May 2022). Vernacular Politics in Northeast India: Democracy, Ethnicity, and Indigeneity. Oxford University Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-19-267826-3.
  27. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 84.
  28. ↑ Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. p. 4. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  29. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 84.
  30. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 84.
  31. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 84.
  32. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 84.
  33. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 85.
  34. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 84.
  35. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 84.
  36. ↑ Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. p. 4. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  37. ↑ Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. pp. xi. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  38. ↑ Singh, Dr Th Suresh (2 June 2014). The Endless Kabaw Valley: British Created Visious Cycle of Manipur, Burma and India. Quills Ink Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 978-93-84318-00-0.
  39. ↑ Devi, Yumlembam Gopi (16 June 2019). Glimpses of Manipuri Culture. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-359-72919-7.
  40. ↑ Birajit, Soibam (1 December 2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM ( Advanced Research Consortium, Manipur). p. 128.
  41. ↑ Devi, L. Kunjeswori (2003). Archaeology in Manipur. Rajesh Publications. p. 61. ISBN 978-81-85891-18-7.
  42. ↑ Singh, Moirangthem Kirti (1998). Recent Researches in Oriental Indological Studies: Including Meiteilogy. Parimal Publications. p. 179.
  43. ↑ Devi, L. Kunjeswori (2003). Archaeology in Manipur. Rajesh Publications. p. 147. ISBN 978-81-85891-18-7.
  44. ↑ FOTW - Manipur, Indian Princely State
  45. ↑ Bhattacharyya, Rituparna (29 July 2022). Northeast India Through the Ages: A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Prehistory, History, and Oral History. Taylor & Francis. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-000-62390-1.
  46. ↑ Bhattacharyya, Rituparna (29 July 2022). Northeast India Through the Ages: A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Prehistory, History, and Oral History. Taylor & Francis. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-000-62390-1.
  47. ↑ Bhattacharyya, Rituparna (29 July 2022). Northeast India Through the Ages: A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Prehistory, History, and Oral History. Taylor & Francis. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-000-62390-1.
  48. ↑ Bhattacharyya, Rituparna (29 July 2022). Northeast India Through the Ages: A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Prehistory, History, and Oral History. Taylor & Francis. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-000-62390-1.
  49. ↑ Bhattacharyya, Rituparna (29 July 2022). Northeast India Through the Ages: A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Prehistory, History, and Oral History. Taylor & Francis. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-000-62390-1.
  50. ↑ Bhattacharyya, Rituparna (29 July 2022). Northeast India Through the Ages: A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Prehistory, History, and Oral History. Taylor & Francis. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-000-62390-1.
  51. ↑ Bhattacharyya, Rituparna (29 July 2022). Northeast India Through the Ages: A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Prehistory, History, and Oral History. Taylor & Francis. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-000-62390-1.
  52. ↑ Bhattacharyya, Rituparna (29 July 2022). Northeast India Through the Ages: A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Prehistory, History, and Oral History. Taylor & Francis. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-000-62390-1.
  53. ↑ Bhattacharyya, Rituparna (29 July 2022). Northeast India Through the Ages: A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Prehistory, History, and Oral History. Taylor & Francis. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-000-62390-1.
  54. ↑ "Umanglai Haraoba Traditional Institution for Local Self Governance in Manipur". Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  55. ↑ "Yubu and Lai Haraoba". Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  56. ↑ "Lai Haraoba Lairoi in Bhopal 20150106". Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  57. ↑ "'Cheng Hongba' observed : 07th may12". Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  58. ↑ "An artist couple running a cultural institute". Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  59. ↑ Wouters, Jelle J. P. (16 May 2022). Vernacular Politics in Northeast India: Democracy, Ethnicity, and Indigeneity. Oxford University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-19-267826-3.
  60. ↑ Wouters, Jelle J. P. (16 May 2022). Vernacular Politics in Northeast India: Democracy, Ethnicity, and Indigeneity. Oxford University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-19-267826-3.
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  64. ↑ "Illustrated Manuscripts 2". Retrieved 10 October 2023.
  65. ↑ "Textile Bdesh Myanmar 6". Retrieved 10 October 2023.
  66. ↑ Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. p. 172. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
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  72. ↑ Sarma, Krishangi (26 August 2023). "How Serpents of Pakhangba brings together Meitei mysticism and music". EastMojo. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
  73. ↑ Tagat, Anurag (4 June 2022). "Serpents Of Pakhangba Draw From Meitei Folklore for Incendiary 'Panthoibi' Video". Rolling Stone India. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
  74. ↑ Scroll Staff (7 June 2022). "Watch: Folk metal band 'Serpents of Pakhangba' weave Manipuri Meitei folklore into their new single". Scroll.in. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
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