1898–1915: Childhood

Robeson's birthplace in Princeton, New Jersey

Robeson was born in Princeton, New Jersey, in 1898, to Reverend William Drew Robeson and Maria Louisa Bustill.^[6] His mother, Maria, was a member of the Bustills, a prominent Quaker family of mixed ancestry.^[7] His father, William, was of Igbo origin and was born into slavery.^[8][9] William escaped from a plantation in his teens^[10] and eventually became the minister of Princeton's Witherspoon Street Presbyterian Church in 1881.^[11] Robeson had three brothers: William Drew Jr. (born 1881), Reeve (born c. 1887), and Ben (born c. 1893); and one sister, Marian (born c. 1895).^[12]

In 1900, a disagreement between William and white financial supporters of the Witherspoon church arose with apparent racial undertones,^[13] which were prevalent in Princeton.^[14] William, who had the support of his entirely black congregation, resigned in 1901.^[15] The loss of his position forced him to work menial jobs.^[16] Three years later when Robeson was six, his mother, who was nearly blind, died in a house fire.^[17] Eventually, William became financially incapable of providing a house for himself and his children still living at home, Ben and Paul, so they moved into the attic of a store in Westfield, New Jersey.^[18]

William found a stable parsonage at the St. Thomas A.M.E. Zion in 1910,^[19] where Robeson filled in for his father during sermons when he was called away.^[20] In 1912, Robeson began attending Somerville High School in New Jersey,^[21] where he performed in Julius Caesar and Othello, sang in the chorus, and excelled in football, basketball, baseball and track.^[22] His athletic dominance elicited racial taunts which he ignored.^[23] Prior to his graduation, he won a statewide academic contest for a scholarship to Rutgers and was named class valedictorian.^[24] He took a summer job as a waiter in Narragansett Pier, Rhode Island, where he befriended Fritz Pollard, later to be the first African-American coach in the National Football League.^[25]

1915–1919: Rutgers College

Fritz Pollard (left) and Robeson in a photo from the March 1918 issue of The Crisis

In late 1915, Robeson became the third African-American student ever enrolled at Rutgers, and the only one at the time.^[26] He tried out for the Rutgers Scarlet Knights football team,^[27] and his resolve to make the squad was tested as his teammates engaged in excessive play, during which his nose was broken and his shoulder dislocated.^[28] The coach, Foster Sanford, decided he had overcome the provocation and announced that he had made the team.^[29]

Robeson joined the debating team^[30] and sang off-campus for spending money,^[31] and on-campus with the Glee Club informally, as membership required attending all-white mixers.^[32] He also joined the other collegiate athletic teams.^[33] As a sophomore, amidst Rutgers' sesquicentennial celebration, he was benched when a Southern football team, Washington and Lee University, refused to take the field because the Scarlet Knights had fielded a Negro, Robeson.^[34]

After a standout junior year of football,^[35] he was recognized in The Crisis for his athletic, academic, and singing talents.^[36] At this time^[37] his father fell grievously ill.^[38] Robeson took the sole responsibility in caring for him, shuttling between Rutgers and Somerville.^[39] His father, who was the "glory of his boyhood years"^[40] soon died, and at Rutgers, Robeson expounded on the incongruity of African Americans fighting to protect America in World War I but not having the same opportunities in the United States as whites.^[41]

Robeson (far left) was part of the Rutgers University class of 1919 and one of four students accepted into the Cap and Skull honor society.

He finished university with four annual oratorical triumphs^[42] and varsity letters in multiple sports.^[43] His play at end^[44] won him first-team All-American selection, in both his junior and senior years. Walter Camp considered him the greatest end ever.^[45] Academically, he was accepted into Phi Beta Kappa^[46] and Cap and Skull.^[47] His classmates recognized him^[48] by electing him class valedictorian.^[49] The Daily Targum published a poem featuring his achievements.^[50] In his valedictory speech, he exhorted his classmates to work for equality for all Americans. At Rutgers Robeson also gained a reputation for his singing, having a deep rich voice which some saw as bass with a high range, others as baritone with low notes. Throughout his career Robeson was classified as a bass-baritone.^[51]

1919–1923: Columbia Law School and marriage

Robeson entered New York University School of Law in fall 1919.^[52] To support himself, he became an assistant football coach at Lincoln University,^[53] where he joined the Alpha Phi Alpha.^[54] However, Robeson felt uncomfortable at NYU^[55] and moved to Harlem and transferred to Columbia Law School in February 1920.^[56] Already known in the black community for his singing,^[57] he was selected to perform at the dedication of the Harlem YWCA.^[58]

Robeson began dating Eslanda "Essie" Goode^[59] and after her coaxing,^[60] he made his theatrical debut as Simon in Ridgely Torrence's Simon of Cyrene.^[61] After a year of courtship, they were married in August 1921.^[62]

Robeson was recruited by Fritz Pollard to play for the NFL's Akron Pros while he continued his law studies.^[63] In the spring of 1922, Robeson postponed school^[64] to portray Jim in Mary Hoyt Wiborg's play Taboo.^[65] He then sang in the chorus of an Off-Broadway production of Shuffle Along^[66] before he joined Taboo in Britain.^[67] The play was adapted by Mrs Patrick Campbell to highlight his singing.^[68] After the play's run ended, he befriended Lawrence Benjamin Brown,^[69] a classically trained musician,^[70] before returning to Columbia while playing for the NFL's Milwaukee Badgers.^[71] He ended his football career after the 1922 season,^[72] and graduated from Columbia Law School in 1923.^[73]

1923–1927: Harlem Renaissance

Robeson worked briefly as a lawyer, but he renounced a career in law because of racism.^[74] His wife supported them financially. She was the head histological chemist in Surgical Pathology at New York-Presbyterian Hospital. She continued to work there until 1925 when his career took off.^[75] They frequented the social functions at the future Schomburg Center.^[76] In December 1924 he landed the lead role of Jim in Eugene O'Neill's All God's Chillun Got Wings,^[77] which culminated with Jim metaphorically consummating his marriage with his white wife by symbolically emasculating himself. Chillun's opening was postponed due to nationwide controversy over its plot.^[78]

Chillun's delay led to a revival of The Emperor Jones with Robeson as Brutus, a role pioneered by Charles Sidney Gilpin.^[79] The role terrified and galvanized Robeson, as it was practically a 90-minute soliloquy.^[80] Reviews declared him an unequivocal success.^[81] Though arguably clouded by its controversial subject, his Jim in Chillun was less well received.^[82] He answered criticism of its plot by writing that fate had drawn him to the "untrodden path" of drama, that the true measure of a culture is in its artistic contributions, and that the only true American culture was African-American.^[83]

The success of his acting placed him in elite social circles^[84] and his ascension to fame, which was forcefully aided by Essie,^[85] had occurred at a startling pace.^[86] Essie's ambition for Robeson was a startling dichotomy to his indifference.^[87] She quit her job, became his agent, and negotiated his first movie role in a silent race film directed by Oscar Micheaux, Body and Soul (1925).^[88] To support a charity for single mothers, he headlined a concert singing spirituals.^[89] He performed his repertoire of spirituals on the radio.^[90]

Lawrence Benjamin Brown, who had become renowned while touring as a pianist with gospel singer Roland Hayes, chanced upon Robeson in Harlem.^[91] The two ad-libbed a set of spirituals, with Robeson as lead and Brown as accompanist. This so enthralled them that they booked Provincetown Playhouse for a concert.^[92] The pair's rendition of African-American folk songs and spirituals was captivating,^[93] and Victor Records signed Robeson to a contract in September 1925.^[94]

The Robesons went to London for a revival of The Emperor Jones, before spending the rest of the fall on holiday on the French Riviera, socializing with Gertrude Stein and Claude McKay.^[95] Robeson and Brown performed a series of concert tours in America from January 1926 until May 1927.^[96]

During a hiatus in New York, Robeson learned that Essie was several months pregnant.^[97] Paul Robeson Jr. was born in November 1927 in New York, while Robeson and Brown toured Europe.^[98] Essie experienced complications from the birth,^[99] and by mid-December, her health had deteriorated dramatically. Ignoring Essie's objections, her mother wired Robeson and he immediately returned to her bedside.^[100] Essie completely recovered after a few months.

1928–1932: Show Boat, Othello, and marriage difficulties

In 1928, Robeson played "Joe" in the London production of the American musical Show Boat, at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane.^[101] His rendition of "Ol' Man River" became the benchmark for all future performers of the song.^[102] Some black critics objected to the play's use of the then common racial epithet.^[103] It was, nonetheless, immensely popular with white audiences.^[104] He was summoned for a Royal Command Performance at Buckingham Palace^[105] and Robeson was befriended by Members of Parliament (MPs) from the House of Commons.^[106] Show Boat continued for 350 performances and, as of 2001, it remained the Royal's most profitable venture.^[102] The Robesons bought a home in Hampstead.^[107] He reflected on his life in his diary and wrote that it was all part of a "higher plan" and "God watches over me and guides me. He's with me and lets me fight my own battles and hopes I'll win."^[108] However, an incident at the Savoy Grill, in which he was refused seating, sparked him to issue a press release describing the insult which subsequently became a matter of public debate.^[109]

Essie had learned early in their marriage that Robeson had been involved in extramarital affairs, but she tolerated them.^[110] However, when she discovered that he was having another affair, she unfavorably altered the characterization of him in his biography,^[111] and defamed him by describing him with "negative racial stereotypes".^[112] Despite her uncovering of this tryst, there was no public evidence that their relationship had soured.^[113]

The couple appeared in the experimental Swiss film Borderline (1930).^[114] He then returned to the Savoy Theatre, in London's West End to play Othello, opposite Peggy Ashcroft as Desdemona.^[115] He cited the lack of a "racial problem" in London as significant in his decision to move to London.^[116] Robeson was the first black actor to play Othello in Britain since Ira Aldridge.^[117] The production received mixed reviews which noted Robeson's "highly civilized quality [but lacking the] grand style."^[118] Robeson stated the best way to diminish the oppression African Americans faced was for his artistic work to be an example of what "men of my colour" could accomplish rather than to "be a propagandist and make speeches and write articles about what they call the Colour Question."^[119]

After Essie discovered Robeson had been having an affair with Ashcroft, she decided to seek a divorce and they split up.^[120] While working in London, Robeson became one of the first artists to record at the new EMI Recording Studios (later known as Abbey Road Studios), recording four songs in September 1931, almost two months before the studio was officially opened.^[121] Robeson returned to Broadway as Joe in the 1932 revival of Show Boat, to critical and popular acclaim.^[122] He received, with immense pride, an honorary master's degree from Rutgers.^[123] It is said that Foster Sanford, his college football coach advised him that divorcing Essie and marrying Ashcroft would do irreparable damage to his reputation.^[124] In any case, Ashcroft and Robeson's relationship ended in 1932,^[125] and Robeson and Essie reconciled, leaving their relationship scarred permanently.^[126]

1933–1937: Ideological awakening

In 1933, Robeson played the role of Jim in the London production of Chillun, virtually gratis,^[127] then returned to the United States to star as Brutus in the film The Emperor Jones—the first film to feature an African American in a starring role, "a feat not repeated for more than two decades in the U.S."^[128][129] His acting in The Emperor Jones was well received.^[129] On the film set he rejected any slight to his dignity, despite the widespread Jim Crow atmosphere in the United States.^[130] Upon returning to England, he publicly criticized African Americans' rejection of their own culture.^[131] Despite negative reactions from the press, such as a New York Amsterdam News retort that Robeson had made a "jolly well [ass of himself]",^[132] he also announced that he would reject any offers to perform central European (though not Russian, which he considered "Asiatic") opera because the music had no connection to his heritage.^[133]

In early 1934, Robeson enrolled in the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), a constituent college of the University of London, where he studied phonetics and Swahili.^[134][135] His "sudden interest" in African history and its influence on culture^[136] coincided with his essay "I Want to be African", wherein he wrote of his desire to embrace his ancestry.^[137]

Robeson and actress Irén Ágay on the set of Sanders of the River, London, 1934

His friends in the anti-imperialist movement and his association with British socialists led him to visit the Soviet Union.^[137] Robeson, Essie, and Marie Seton traveled to the Soviet Union on an invitation from Sergei Eisenstein in December 1934.^[138] A stopover in Berlin enlightened Robeson to the racism in Nazi Germany^[139] and, on his arrival in Moscow, in the Soviet Union, Robeson said, "Here I am not a Negro but a human being for the first time in my life ... I walk in full human dignity."^[140]

He undertook the role of Bosambo in the movie Sanders of the River (1935),^[141] which he felt would render a realistic view of colonial African culture. Sanders of the River made Robeson an international movie star;^[142] but the stereotypical portrayal of a colonial African^[143] was seen as embarrassing to his stature as an artist^[144] and damaging to his reputation.^[145] The Commissioner of Nigeria to London protested the film as slanderous to his country,^[146] and Robeson thereafter became more politically conscious of his roles.^[147] He appeared in the play Stevedore at the Embassy Theatre in London in May 1935,^[148] which was favorably reviewed in The Crisis by Nancy Cunard, who concluded: "Stevedore is extremely valuable in the racial–social question—it is straight from the shoulder".^[149] In early 1936, he decided to send his son to school in the Soviet Union to shield him from racist attitudes.^[150] He then played the role of Toussaint Louverture in the eponymous play by C. L. R. James^[151] at the Westminster Theatre, and appeared in the films Song of Freedom,^[152] and Show Boat in 1936,^[153] and My Song Goes Forth,^[154] King Solomon's Mines.^[155] and Big Fella, all in 1937.^[156] In 1938, he was named by American Motion Picture Herald as the 10th most popular star in British cinema.^[157]

Robeson at Einstein's home in Princeton, October 1947

In 1935, Robeson met Albert Einstein when Einstein came backstage after Robeson's concert at the McCarter Theatre. The two discovered that, as well as a mutual passion for music, they shared a hatred for fascism. The friendship between Robeson and Einstein lasted nearly twenty years, but was not well known or publicized.^[158]

1937–1939: Spanish Civil War and political activism

Robeson believed that the struggle against fascism during the Spanish Civil War was a turning point in his life and transformed him into a political activist.^[159] In 1937, he used his concert performances to advocate the Republican cause and the war's refugees.^[160] He permanently modified his renditions of "Ol' Man River" – initially, by singing the word "darkies" instead of "niggers"; later, by changing some of the stereotypical dialect in the lyrics to standard English and replacing the fatalistic last verse ("Ah gits weary / An' sick of tryin' / Ah'm tired of livin' / An skeered of dyin'") with an uplifting verse of his own ("But I keep laffin' / Instead of cryin' / I must keep fightin' / Until I'm dyin'") – transforming it from a tragic "song of resignation with a hint of protest implied" into a battle hymn of unwavering defiance.^[161] His business agent expressed concern about his political involvement,^[162] but Robeson overruled him and decided that contemporary events trumped commercialism.^[163] In Wales,^[164] he commemorated the Welsh people killed while fighting for the Republicans,^[165] where he recorded a message that became his epitaph: "The artist must take sides. He must elect to fight for freedom or slavery. I have made my choice. I had no alternative."^[166]

After an invitation from J. B. S. Haldane,^[167] he traveled to Spain in 1938 because he believed in the International Brigades's cause,^[168] visited the hospital of the Benicàssim, singing to the wounded soldiers.^[169] Robeson also visited the battlefront^[170] and provided a morale boost to the Republicans at a time when their victory was unlikely.^[168] Back in England, he hosted Jawaharlal Nehru to support Indian independence, whereat Nehru expounded on imperialism's affiliation with Fascism.^[171] Robeson reevaluated the direction of his career and decided to focus on the ordeals of "common people".^[172] He appeared in the pro-labor play Plant in the Sun, in which he played an Irishman, his first "white" role.^[173] With Max Yergan, and the International Committee on African Affairs (later known as the Council on African Affairs or CAA), Robeson became an advocate for African nationalism and political independence.^[174]

Robeson performs at Birmingham Town Hall, England, on March 7, 1939, in aid of a local charity, the Birmingham Mail Christmas Tree Fund.^[175] The advertised pianist was Lawrence Brown.^[176]

Paul Robeson was living in Britain until shortly before the start of the Second World War in 1939. His name was included in the Sonderfahndungsliste G.B. as a target for arrest if Germany had occupied Britain.^[177]

1939–1945: World War II, and the Broadway Othello

Robeson leading Moore Shipyard (Oakland, California) workers in singing the "Star Spangled Banner", September 1942

Robeson with Uta Hagen in the Theatre Guild production of Othello (1943–44)

Robeson's last British film was The Proud Valley (1940), set in a Welsh coal-mining town.^[178] Shortly after the outbreak of World War II, Robeson and his family returned to the United States in 1940, to Enfield, Connecticut, and he became America's "no.1 entertainer"^[179] with a radio broadcast of Ballad for Americans.^[180] Nevertheless, during a tour in 1940, the Beverly Wilshire Hotel was the only major Los Angeles hotel willing to accommodate him due to his race, at an exorbitant rate and registered under an assumed name, and he therefore dedicated two hours every afternoon to sitting in the lobby, where he was widely recognised, "to ensure that the next time Black[s] come through, they'll have a place to stay." Los Angeles hotels lifted their restrictions on black guests soon afterwards.^[181][182]

Robeson narrated the 1942 documentary Native Land which was labeled by the FBI as communist propaganda.^[183] After an appearance in Tales of Manhattan (1942), a production which he felt was "very offensive to my people", he announced that he would no longer act in films because of the demeaning roles available to blacks.^[184] (See Tales of Manhattan#Controversy surrounding fifth tale upon 1942 release).

According to democratic socialist writer Barry Finger's critical appraisal of Robeson, while the Hitler-Stalin pact was still in effect, Robeson counseled American blacks that they had no stake in the rivalry of European powers. Once Russia was attacked, he urged blacks to support the war effort, now warning that an Allied defeat would "make slaves of us all".^[185] Robeson participated in benefit concerts on behalf of the war effort and at a concert at the Polo Grounds, he met two emissaries from the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, Solomon Mikhoels and Itzik Feffer.^[186] Subsequently, Robeson reprised his role of Othello at the Shubert Theatre in 1943,^[187] and became the first African American to play the role with a white supporting cast on Broadway. The production was a success, running for 296 performances on Broadway (a record for a Shakespeare production on Broadway that still stands),^[188] and winning for Robeson the first Donaldson Award for Best Actor in a Play. During the same period, he addressed a meeting with Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis and team owners in a failed attempt to convince them to admit black players to Major League Baseball.^[189] He toured North America with Othello until 1945,^[190] and subsequently, his political efforts with the CAA to get colonial powers to discontinue their exploitation of Africa were short-circuited by the United Nations.^[191]

During this period, Robeson also developed a sympathy for the Republic of China's side in the Second Sino-Japanese War. In 1940, the Chinese progressive activist, Liu Liangmo taught Robeson the patriotic song "Chee Lai!" ("Arise!"), known as the March of the Volunteers.^[192] Robeson premiered the song at a concert in New York City's Lewisohn Stadium^[192] and recorded it in both English and Chinese for Keynote Records in early 1941.^[193][194] Robeson gave further performances at benefit concerts for the China Aid Council and United China Relief at Washington's Uline Arena on April 24, 1941.^[195] The Washington Committee for Aid to China's booking of Constitution Hall had been blocked by the Daughters of the American Revolution owing to Robeson's race. The indignation was so great that Eleanor Roosevelt and Hu Shih, the Chinese ambassador, became sponsors. However, when the organizers offered tickets on generous terms to the National Negro Congress to help fill the larger venue, both sponsors withdrew, objecting to the NNC's Communist ties.^[196]

The song became newly founded People's Republic of China's National Anthem after 1949. Its Chinese lyricist, Tian Han, died in a Beijing prison in 1968, but Robeson continued to send royalties to his family.^[194]

1946–1949: Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations

After the Moore's Ford lynchings of four African Americans in Georgia on July 25, 1946, Robeson met with President Truman and admonished Truman by stating that if he did not enact legislation to end lynching,^[197] "the Negroes will defend themselves".^[197][198] Truman immediately terminated the meeting and declared that the time was not right to propose anti-lynching legislation.^[197] Subsequently, Robeson publicly called upon all Americans to demand that Congress pass civil rights legislation.^[199] Robeson founded the American Crusade Against Lynching organization in 1946. This organization was thought to be a threat to the NAACP antiviolence movement. Robeson received support from W. E. B. Du Bois on this matter and launched the organization on the anniversary of the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation, September 23.^[200]

About this time, Robeson's belief that trade unionism was crucial to civil rights became a mainstay of his political beliefs as he became a proponent of the union activist and Communist Party USA member Revels Cayton.^[201] Robeson was later called before the Tenney Committee where he responded to questions about his affiliation with the Communist Party USA (CPUSA) by testifying that he was not a member of the CPUSA.^[202] Nevertheless, two organizations with which Robeson was intimately involved, the Civil Rights Congress (CRC)^[203] and the CAA,^[204] were placed on the Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations (AGLOSO).^[205] Subsequently, he was summoned before the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary, and when questioned about his affiliation with the Communist Party, he refused to answer, stating: "Some of the most brilliant and distinguished Americans are about to go to jail for the failure to answer that question, and I am going to join them, if necessary."^[206][207]

In 1948, Robeson was prominent in Henry A. Wallace's bid for the President of the United States,^[208] during which Robeson traveled to the Deep South, at risk to his own life, to campaign for him.^[209] In the ensuing year, Robeson was forced to go overseas to work because his concert performances were canceled at the FBI's behest.^[210] While on tour, he spoke at the World Peace Council,^[211] at which his speech was publicly reported as equating America with a Fascist state^[212]—a depiction that he flatly denied.^[213] Nevertheless, the speech publicly attributed to him was a catalyst for his being seen as an enemy of mainstream America.^[214] Robeson refused to bow to public criticism when he advocated in favor of twelve defendants, including his long-time friend, Benjamin J. Davis Jr., charged during the Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders.^[215]

Label of a record by Robeson published by the Soviet Ministry of Culture

Robeson traveled to Moscow in June 1949, and tried to find Itzik Feffer whom he had met during World War II. He let Soviet authorities know that he wanted to see him.^[216] Reluctant to lose Robeson as a propagandist for the Soviet Union,^[217] the Soviets brought Feffer from prison to him. Feffer told him that Mikhoels had been murdered, and he would be summarily executed.^[218] To protect the Soviet Union's reputation,^[219] and to keep the right wing of the United States from gaining the moral high ground, Robeson denied that any persecution existed in the Soviet Union,^[220] and kept the meeting secret for the rest of his life, except from his son.^[219] On June 20, 1949, Robeson spoke at the Paris Peace Congress saying that "We in America do not forget that it was on the backs of the white workers from Europe and on the backs of millions of Blacks that the wealth of America was built. And we are resolved to share it equally. We reject any hysterical raving that urges us to make war on anyone. Our will to fight for peace is strong. We shall not make war on anyone. We shall not make war on the Soviet Union. We oppose those who wish to build up imperialist Germany and to establish fascism in Greece. We wish peace with Franco's Spain despite her fascism. We shall support peace and friendship among all nations, with Soviet Russia and the people's Republics." He was blacklisted for saying this in the mainstream press within the United States, including in many periodicals of the Negro press such as The Crisis.^[221]

In order to isolate Robeson politically,^[222] the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) subpoenaed Jackie Robinson^[223] to comment on Robeson's Paris speech.^[223] Robinson testified that Robeson's statements, "'if accurately reported', were silly'".^[222] Days later, the announcement of a concert headlined by Robeson in New York City provoked the local press to decry the use of their community to support "subversives".^[224] The Peekskill riots ensued in which violent anti-Robeson protests shut down a Robeson concert on August 27, 1949, and marred the aftermath of the replacement concert held eight days later.^[225][226]

1950–1955: Blacklisted

A book reviewed in early 1950 as "the most complete record on college football"^[227] failed to list Robeson as ever having played on the Rutgers team^[228] and as ever having been an All-American.^[229] Months later, NBC canceled Robeson's appearance on Eleanor Roosevelt's television program.^[230] Subsequently, the State Department denied Robeson a passport and issued a "stop notice" at all ports. An isolated existence inside United States borders afforded him less freedom to express^[231] what some saw as his "extreme advocacy on behalf of the independence of the colonial peoples of Africa."^[232] When Robeson met with State Department officials and asked why he was denied a passport, he was told that "his frequent criticism of the treatment of blacks in the United States should not be aired in foreign countries".^[233]

In 1950, Robeson co-founded, with W. E. B. Du Bois, a monthly newspaper, Freedom, showcasing his views and those of his circle. Most issues had a column by Robeson, on the front page. In the final issue, July–August 1955, an unsigned column on the front page of the newspaper described the struggle for the restoration of his passport. It called for support from the leading African-American organizations, and asserted that "Negroes, [and] all Americans who have breathed a sigh of relief at the easing of international tensions... have a stake in the Paul Robeson passport case." An article by Robeson appeared on the second page continuing the passport issue under the headline: "If Enough People Write Washington I'll Get My Passport in a Hurry."^[234]

In 1951, an article titled "Paul Robeson – the Lost Shepherd" was published in The Crisis and attributed to Robert Alan,^[235] although Paul Jr. suspected it was written by Amsterdam News columnist Earl Brown.^[236] J. Edgar Hoover and the United States State Department arranged for the article to be printed and distributed in Africa^[237] in order to damage Robeson's reputation and reduce his popularity and Communism's popularity in colonial countries.^[238] Another article by Roy Wilkins (now thought to have been the real author of "Paul Robeson – the Lost Shepherd") denounced Robeson as well as the Communist Party USA (CPUSA) in terms consistent with the anti-Communist FBI propaganda of the era.^[239]

In December 1951, Robeson, in New York City, and William L. Patterson, in Paris, presented the United Nations with a Civil Rights Congress's petition titled "We Charge Genocide".^[240][241] The document asserted that the United States federal government, by its failure to act against lynching in the United States, was "guilty of genocide" under Article II of the UN Genocide Convention. The petition was not officially acknowledged by the UN, and, though receiving some favorable reception in Europe and in America's Black press, was largely either ignored or criticized for its association with Communism in America's mainstream press.^[242][243]

In 1952, Robeson was awarded the International Stalin Prize by the Soviet Union.^[244] Unable to travel to Moscow, he accepted the award in New York.^[245] In April 1953, shortly after Stalin's death, Robeson penned "To You My Beloved Comrade", praising Stalin as dedicated to peace and a guide to the world: "Through his deep humanity, by his wise understanding, he leaves us a rich and monumental heritage."^[246] Robeson's opinions about the Soviet Union kept his passport out of reach and stopped his return to the entertainment industry and the civil rights movement.^[247] In his opinion, the Soviet Union was the guarantor of political balance in the world.^[248]

In a symbolic act of defiance against the travel ban, in May 1952, labor unions in the United States and Canada organized a concert at the International Peace Arch on the border between Washington state and the Canadian province of British Columbia.^[249] Robeson returned to perform a second concert at the Peace Arch in 1953,^[250] and over the next two years, two further concerts took place. In this period, with the encouragement of his friend the Welsh politician Aneurin Bevan, Robeson recorded a number of radio concerts for supporters in Wales.

1956–1957: End of McCarthyism

In 1956, Robeson was called before HUAC after he refused to sign an affidavit affirming that he was not a Communist. In his testimony, he invoked the Fifth Amendment and refused to reveal his political affiliations. When asked why he had not remained in the Soviet Union because of his affinity with its political ideology, he replied, "because my father was a slave and my people died to build [the United States and], I am going to stay here, and have a part of it just like you and no fascist-minded people will drive me from it!"^[251][252] At that hearing, Robeson stated "Whether I am or not a Communist is irrelevant. The question is whether American citizens, regardless of their political beliefs or sympathies, may enjoy their constitutional rights."^[253]

Due to the reaction to the promulgation of Robeson's political views, his recordings and films were removed from public distribution, and he was universally condemned in the U.S. press.^[254] During the height of the Cold War, it became increasingly difficult in the United States to hear Robeson sing on commercial radio, buy his music or see his films.^[255]

In 1956, in the United Kingdom, Topic Records, at that time part of the Workers Music Association, released a single of Robeson singing the labor anthem "Joe Hill", written by Alfred Hayes and Earl Robinson, backed with "John Brown's Body". In 1956, after public pressure brought a one-time exemption to the travel ban, Robeson performed two concerts in Canada in February, one in Toronto and the other at a union convention in Sudbury, Ontario.^[256]

Still unable to perform abroad in person, on May 26, 1957, Robeson sang for a London audience at St. Pancras Town Hall (where the 1,000 available concert tickets for "Let Robeson Sing" sold out within an hour) via the recently completed transatlantic telephone cable TAT-1.^{[257][258][259]} In October of that year, using the same technology, Robeson sang to an audience of 5,000 at Porthcawl's Grand Pavilion in Wales.^[260][261]

Nikita Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalinism at the 1956 Party Congress silenced Robeson on Stalin, although Robeson continued to praise the Soviet Union.^[262] That year Robeson, along with close friend W.E.B. Du Bois, compared the anti-Soviet uprising in Hungary to the "same sort of people who overthrew the Spanish Republican Government" and supported the Soviet invasion and suppression of the revolt.^[185]

Robeson's passport was finally restored in 1958 as a result of the U.S. Supreme Court's 5 to 4 decision in Kent v. Dulles where the majority ruled that the denial of a passport without due process amounted to a violation of constitutionally protected liberty under the 5th Amendment.^[263]

1958–1960: Comeback tours

1958 saw the publication of Robeson's "manifesto-autobiography" Here I Stand.^[264]

1961–1963: Health breakdown

Back in London after his Australia and New Zealand tour, Robeson expressed a desire to return to the United States and participate in the civil rights movement, while his wife argued that he would be unsafe there and "unable to make any money" due to government harassment. In March 1961 Robeson again traveled to Moscow.^[282]

1963–1976: Retirement

The Paul Robeson House in Philadelphia (2009)

In December 1963, Robeson returned to the United States^[297] and for the remainder of his life lived mainly in seclusion.^[298] He momentarily assumed a role in the civil rights movement,^[285] making a few major public appearances before falling seriously ill during a tour. Double pneumonia and a kidney blockage in 1965 nearly killed him.^[298]

1976: Death, funeral, and public response

On January 23, 1976, following complications of a stroke, Robeson died in Philadelphia at the age of 77.^[306] He lay in state in Harlem^[307] and his funeral was held at his brother Ben's former parish, Mother Zion AME Zion Church,^[308] where Bishop J. Clinton Hoggard performed the eulogy.^[309] His 12 pall bearers included Harry Belafonte^[310] and Fritz Pollard.^[311] He was interred in the Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.^[310]

Biographer Martin Duberman said of news media notices upon Robeson's death:

the "white [American] press ... ignored the continuing inability of white America to tolerate a black maverick who refused to bend, ... downplayed the racist component central to his persecution" [during his life, as they] "gingerly" [paid him] "respect and tipped their hat to him as a 'great American'," while the black American press, "which had never, overall, been as hostile to Robeson" [as the white American press had,] opined that his life " '... would always be a challenge to white and Black America.'"^[308]

In popular culture

In 1949, some Chinese editors published children cartoons presenting him as an artistic and revolutionary hero.^[357] In 1954, the Kurdish poet Abdulla Goran wrote the poem Bangêk bo Pol Ropsin ("A Call for Paul Robeson"). In the same year, another Kurdish poet, Cegerxwîn, also wrote a poem about him, Heval Pol Robson ("Comrade Paul Robeson"), which was put to music by singer Şivan Perwer in 1976.^[358]

Black 47's 1989 album Home of the Brave includes the song "Paul Robeson (Born to Be Free)", which features spoken quotes of Robeson as part of the song.^[359] These quotes are drawn from Robeson's testimony before the House Un-American Activities Committee in June 1956. In 2001, Welsh rock band Manic Street Preachers released a song titled "Let Robeson Sing" as a tribute to Robeson, which reached number 19 on the UK Singles Chart.

In January 1978, James Earl Jones performed the one-man show Paul Robeson, written by Phillip Hayes Dean, on Broadway.^[360][361] This stage drama was made into a TV movie in 1979, starring Jones and directed by Lloyd Richards.^[362] At the 2007 Edinburgh Festival Fringe, British-Nigerian actor Tayo Aluko, himself a baritone soloist, premiered his one-man show, Call Mr. Robeson: A Life with Songs, which has since toured various countries.^[363]

A fictional Paul Robeson appears in George Lucas's Young Indiana Jones in Winds of Change as a friend of Indiana Jones.^[364]

World Inferno Friendship Society had a semi biographical song about Paul Robsons' life on their 2006 album Red Eyed Soul.

Tom Rob Smith's novel Agent 6 (2012) includes the character Jesse Austin, "a black singer, political activist and communist sympathizer modeled after real-life actor/activist Paul Robeson."^[365] Robeson also appears in short fiction published in the online literary magazines the Maple Tree Literary Supplement^[366] and Every Day Fiction.^[367]

Film director Steve McQueen's video work End Credits (2012–ongoing), shown at the Whitney, the Tate Modern, the Art Institute of Chicago, and the Pérez Art Museum, reproduces Robeson's declassified, although still heavily redacted, FBI files.^[368]

On September 7, 2019, Crossroads Theatre Company performed Phillip Hayes Dean's play Paul Robeson in the inaugural performance of the New Brunswick Performing Arts Center.^[369]

Robeson was widely popular among Indian intellectuals and artists. Noted Indian singer-songwriter, Dr. Bhupen Hazarika met Robeson in 1949, befriended him and participated in civil rights activities.^[370] Hazarika based his iconic Assamese song "Bistirno Parore" ("Of the wide shores") on Robeson's "Ol' Man River",^{[371][372][373]} later translated into Bengali, Hindi, Nepali and Sanskrit. Singer-songwriter Hemanga Biswas sang the Bengali ballad "Negro bhai amar Paul Robeson" ("Our Negro brother Paul Robeson").^[373] There were nation-wide celebrations in India on Robeson's 60th birthday in 1958, with the then prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru saying: "This occasion deserves celebration…because Paul Robeson is one of the greatest artistes of our generation."^[370][373]

Primary materials

• Robeson, Paul Jr. (1976). Paul Robeson: Tributes and Selected Writings. Paul Robeson Archives. OCLC 2507933..
• Robeson, Paul (1978a). Sheldon, Philip; Foner, Henry (eds.). Paul Robeson Speaks: Writings, Speeches, and Interviews, a Centennial Celebration. Citadel Press. ISBN 978-0806508153.
• Robeson, Paul Leroy (1919-06-10). "The New Idealism". The Targum 50, 1918–1919: 570–71.
• Robeson, Paul; Brown, Lloyd L. (1988). Here I Stand. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0807064450. Paul Robeson at Google Books
• Wilson, Sondra K., ed. (2000). The Messenger Reader: Stories, Poetry, and Essays from The Messenger Magazine. New York: Modern Library. ISBN 978-0375755392.

Biographies

• Boyle, Sheila Tully; Bunie, Andrew (October 1, 2005). Paul Robeson: The Years of Promise and Achievement. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-1558495050.
• Brown, Lloyd Louis (1997). The Young Paul Robeson: "on My Journey Now". Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-3177-5.
• Duberman, Martin B. (1989). Paul Robeson. Bodley Head. ISBN 978-0370305752.
• Ehrlich, Scott (1989). Paul Robeson. Holloway House Publishing. ISBN 978-0870675522.
• Gilliam, Dorothy Butler (1978). Paul Robeson: All-American. New Republic Book Company.
• Goodman, Jordan (2013). Paul Robeson: A Watched Man. Verso Books.
• Hoyt, Edwin Palmer (1967). Paul Robeson: The American Othello. World Publishing Company.
• Ramdin, Ron (October 1987). Paul Robeson: the man and his mission. Peter Owen.
• Robeson, Eslanda Goode (April 16, 2013). Paul Robeson, Negro. Read Books Limited. ISBN 978-1447494010.
• Robeson, Paul Jr. (July 9, 2001). The Undiscovered Paul Robeson, An Artist's Journey, 1898–1939. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0471151050.
• Robeson, Paul Jr. (December 21, 2009). The Undiscovered Paul Robeson: Quest for Freedom, 1939–1976. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0470569689.
• Seton, Marie (1958). Paul Robeson. D. Dobson.
• Seton, Mary (1978). "Paul Robeson on the English Stage". In Freedomways (ed.). Paul Robeson: The Great Forerunner. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. ISBN 978-0396075455.
• Swindall, Lindsey R. (October 27, 2010). The Politics of Paul Robeson's Othello. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1604738254. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved September 26, 2015. Paul Robeson at Google Books
• Swindall, Lindsey R. (August 15, 2015). Paul Robeson: A Life of Activism and Art. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1442207943. Paul Robeson at Google Books

Secondary materials

• Balaji, Murali (April 29, 2009). The Professor and the Pupil: The Politics and Friendship of W.E.B Du Bois and Paul Robeson. Nation Books. ISBN 978-0-7867-3260-9.
• Beevor, Antony (2006). The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0143037651.
• Bell, Charlotte Turner (January 1, 1986). Paul Robeson's Last Days in Philadelphia. Dorrance Publishing Company, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0805930269.
• Bogle, Donald (February 25, 2016). Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films, Updated and Expanded 5th Edition. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0826429537.
• Cameron, Kenneth M. (October 1, 1990). "Paul Robeson, Eddie Murphy, and the Film Text of 'Africa'". Text & Performance Quarterly. 10 (4): 282–93. doi:10.1080/10462939009365979.
• Carroll, John M. (September 1, 1998). Fritz Pollard: Pioneer in Racial Advancement. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252067990.
• Curthoys, Ann (2010). "Paul Robeson's visit to Australia and Aboriginal activism, 1960" (PDF). In Peters-Little, Frances; Curthoys, Ann; Docker, John (eds.). Passionate Histories: Myth, Memory and Indigenous Australia. Canberra, Australia: Australian National University Press. pp. 163–84. ISBN 978-1921666650. Paul Robeson, p. 163, at Google Books
• Dorinson, Joseph; Pencak, William, eds. (January 1, 2004). Paul Robeson: Essays on His Life and Legacy. McFarland. ISBN 978-0786421633.

• Dorinson, Joseph (2002). Something to Cheer About: Paul Robeson, Athlete. pp. 65–.
• Foner, Henry (2002). "Foreword". Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology. 9 (2): 117. doi:10.1007/BF00972143. PMID 24390044.

• Eby, Cecil D. (2007). Comrades and Commissars: The Lincoln Battalion in the Spanish Civil War. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0271029108.
• Farmer, James (1985). Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement. TCU Press. ISBN 978-0875651880.
• Finkelman, Paul (January 2007). Wintz, Cary D. (ed.). Paul Robeson. Sourcebooks. ISBN 978-1402204364. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
• Foner, Henry (2001). Paul Robeson: A Century of Greatness. Paul Robeson Foundation.
• Glazer, Peter (2007). "The lifted fist: performing the Spanish Civil War, New York City, 1936–1939". In Carroll, Peter N.; Fernández, James D. (eds.). Facing fascism: New York and the Spanish Civil War. Museum of the City of New York. ISBN 978-0-8147-1681-6.
• Goldstein, Robert Justin (2008). American blacklist: the attorney general's list of subversive organizations. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0700616046.
• Hopkins, James K. (1998). Into the Heart of the Fire: The British in the Spanish Civil War. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804731270.
• James, C.L.R.; Høgsbjerg, Christian; Dubois, Laurent (December 31, 2012). Toussaint Louverture: The Story of the Only Successful Slave Revolt in History; A Play in Three Acts. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0822353140.
• Landis, Arthur H. (1967). The Abraham Lincoln Brigade. Citadel Press.
• Kelly, Elaine; Wlodarski, Amy, eds. (2011). Art Outside the Lines: New Perspectives on GDR Art Culture. Editions Rodopi. pp. 111–130. ISBN 978-90-420-3341-2.

• Lennox, Sara (2011). Reading Transnationally: the GDR and American Black Writers.

• Levy, Alan H. (2003). Tackling Jim Crow, Racial Segregation in Professional Football. McFarland and Co., Inc. ISBN 0-7864-1597-5.
• Lewis, David L. (October 17, 2000). W.E.B. Du Bois, 1919–1963: The Fight for Equality and the American Century. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-0805025347.
• Low, Rachael (1985). Film Making in 1930s Britain. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0047910425.
• Lustiger, Arno (2003). Stalin and the Jews: The Red Book : the Tragedy of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee and the Soviet Jews. Enigma. ISBN 978-1929631100.
• Marable, Manning (2005). W.E.B. Du Bois: Black Radical Democrat. Paradigm Publishers. ISBN 978-1594510199.
• McConnell, Lauren (2010). "Understanding Paul Robeson's Soviet Experience". Theatre History Studies. 30 (1): 138–153. doi:10.1353/ths.2010.0003. S2CID 191612284.
• Morrison, Michael A. (May 2011). "Paul Robeson's Othello at the Savoy Theatre, 1930". New Theatre Quarterly. 27 (2): 114–40. doi:10.1017/S0266464X11000261. S2CID 190731391.
• Nollen, Scott Allen (October 14, 2010). Paul Robeson: Film Pioneer. McFarland. ISBN 978-0786457472.
• Pellowski, Michael (2008). Rutgers Football: A Gridiron Tradition in Scarlet. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813542836.
• Peterson, Bernard L. (January 1, 1997). The African American Theatre Directory, 1816–1960: A Comprehensive Guide to Early Black Theatre Organizations, Companies, Theatres, and Performing Groups. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0313295379.
• Pitt, Larry (1972). Football at Rutgers: A History, 1869–1969. ISBN 978-0813507477.
• Price, Clement Alexander (2007). Paul Robeson: Portraits of the Artist. Criterion Collection. ISBN 978-1934121191.
• Richards, Jeffrey (March 21, 2001). The Unknown 1930s: An Alternative History of the British Cinema, 1929–1939. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1860646287.
• Richards, Larry (2005). African American Films Through 1959: A Comprehensive, Illustrated Filmography. McFarland. pp. 4–. ISBN 978-0786422746.
• Robeson, Paul Jr. (1978b). "Paul Robeson: Black Warrior". In Freedomways (ed.). Paul Robeson: The Great Forerunner. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. pp. 3–16. ISBN 978-0396075455.
• Robeson, Susan (1981). The whole world in his hands: a pictorial biography of Paul Robeson. Citadel Press. ISBN 978-0806507545.
• Robinson, Eugene (1978). "A Distant Image: Paul Robeson and Rutgers' Students". In Freedomways (ed.). Paul Robeson: The Great Forerunner. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. ISBN 978-0396075455.
• Robinson, Jackie; Duckett, Alfred (March 19, 2013). I Never Had It Made: An Autobiography of Jackie Robinson. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0062287298.
• Rogovin, Vadim Zakharovich (1998). 1937: Stalin's Year of Terror. Mehring Books. ISBN 978-0929087771.
• Sampson, Henry T. (2005). Swingin' on the Ether Waves: A Chronological History of African Americans in Radio and Television Programming, 1925–1955. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810840874.
• Snyder, Timothy (November 25, 2013). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0465032976.
• Stewart, Jeffrey C., ed. (April 1998). Paul Robeson: artist and citizen. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813525105.

• Harris, Francis C. (1998). Paul Robeson: An Athlete's Legacy.
• Naison, Mark (1998). Paul Robeson and the American Labor Movement.

• Stuckey, Sterling (1994). Going Through the Storm: The Influence of African American Art in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195086041.
• Von Eschen, Penny M. (June 13, 2014). Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801471704.
• Wade-Lewis, Margaret (2007). Lorenzo Dow Turner: Father of Gullah Studies. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1570036286.
• Walsh, Christy (1949). College Football and All America Review. Murray & Gee.
• Weisenfeld, Judith (1997). African American Women and Christian Activism: New York's Black YWCA, 1905–1945. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674007789.
• Wintz, Cary D., ed. (January 2007). Harlem Speaks: A Living History of the Harlem Renaissance. Sourcebooks. ISBN 978-1402204364.
• Wright, Charles H. (January 1, 1975). Robeson: Labor's Forgotten Champion. Balamp Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0913642061.
• Wyden, Peter (1983). The Passionate War: The Narrative History of the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0671253301.

Film biographies and documentaries

• The Tallest Tree in Our Forest (1977)
• Paul Robeson: Tribute to an Artist (1979) Paul Robeson at IMDb
• Paul Robeson – James Earl Jones One Man Show (1979 TV movie) Paul Robeson at IMDb
• Paul Robeson: I'm a Negro, I'm an American (1989, DEFA, East Germany, dir. Kurt Tetzlaff) – "Paul Robeson: I'm a Negro, I'm an American". DEFA Film library. University of Massachusetts. Retrieved October 26, 2021.
• Paul Robeson: Speak of Me as I Am (1998)
• His name was Robeson (1998) Paul Robeson at IMDb Interview by director Nikolay Milovidov with Paul Robson Jr. who shares his memories about a conversation Robson had in 1949 in a room at the Moscow Hotel with the Jewish poet Itzik Feffer, who told Robeson the circumstances of Solomon Mikhoels' death.
• Paul Robeson: Here I Stand (1999) PBS American Masters, directed by St. Clair Bourne Paul Robeson at IMDb
• Paul Robeson: Portraits of an Artist (2007) Irvington: Criterion Collection. ISBN 1934121193.

Associated institutions

• Paul Robeson House
• Paul Robeson Charter School
• Paul Robeson Performing Arts Company

Paul Robeson archives

• Marxists.org
• National Archives
• Library of Congress
• Guide to the Paul Robeson Centennial Project Records, Center for Black Music Research, Columbia College Chicago