History of autologous fat grafting

The first isolation of mesenchymal stem cells from the bone marrow was done by Friednstein et al. in 1986 and considered as a primary clinical stem cell source. However, the painful acquisition and low cell yield limited further research. Then Zuk et al. isolated ADSCs and found it has same potentials as BM-MSCs. Although later other stem cells were identified from different parts of the human body, ADSCs was considered to be the safest as it was the easiest stem cell to isolate and did not require cell expansion. Thus ADSCs are still used as a primary source of fat transfer therapies.^[6]

The concept of autologous fat grafting was first suggested in 1893. The first report described that the adipose tissue without changing its structure was implanted to the adherent scars from osteomyelitis. The result was successful and soon widely used in different fields of aesthetic procedures such as breast augmentation and rhinoplasties.^[6]

In 1978, a liposuction procedure was invented to remove the excessive fat depositions. Later, Illouz found that this procedure is the ideal supplier of fat tissue and used impurified lipoaspirate as a transplant in 1983 and Fournier proposed a reinjection technique of aspirated fat.^[6]

The third period starts from 1994 when S.R. Coleman introduced the Coleman technique, which uses adipose tissue for lipids cell transfer. The lipoaspirate was centrifuged to separates the stromal vascular fraction(SVF) including ADSCs from blood, tissue, fluid, and lipids.^[3] Yet, the fat cell retention rate was varied from 30% to 95%. The first theory that explains graft survival is the Cell Survival Theory, which suggests that the transfer of viable adipocytes for adequate circulation enhances the survival rate and this can be done by developing the processing and injection techniques to minimize trauma.^[6]

The recent theory is the Host replacement theory that retention rate after fat grafting is determined by the ADSCs replacing adipocytes, as the successful ADSCs activation and replacement of adipocytes is related to the early death of transferred adipocytes in ischemic conditions.^[6]

ADSCs

Human mesenchymal stem cells

Fang et al. proposed that ADSCs are the most widely used due to the following three characteristics: their pluripotent differentiation potentials, paracrine activity and immunomodulatory function. ADSCs are one type of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and they exhibit high similarities with BM-MSCs.^[7] Hence, they are capable of multilineage differentiation into fats, cartilages, cardiac muscles, nerves, skins, and Skeletal muscles. They also tend to survive for a longer period with a higher proliferative capacity than other stem cells. ADSCs secret pro-angiogenic factors and anti-apoptotic factors like cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, mRNAs, and microRNAs. Then, they act on different systems where they were transplanted and regenerate cells in these transplanted systems. Moreover, as ADSCs resemble BM-MSCs, they have immunosuppressive characteristics, suppressing both innate and adaptive immune systems. However, their capacity is even stronger than BM-MSCs by secretion of immunosuppressive factors such as IL-6 and TGF-B. Additionally, they perform as immune tolerators to suppress lymphocyte proliferation; such property suggests the possibility of ADSCs for xenotransplantation.^[8]

Homing effect

The homing effect refers to the engraftment of ADSCs to bone marrow endothelium owing to the arrest of ADSCs within the vasculature of a tissue. ADSCs are engrafted to the bone marrow endothelium, as they circulate across the endothelium and adhesion interactions are activated to the bone marrow endothelium. Thus, such engraftment increases the probability of long-term survival of transferred fats. The homing effect follows three main processes: rolling, adhesion, and transmigration. During the rolling, ADSCs migrate and interacts with vascular endothelial cells in bone marrow in shear-resistant and low-affinity manners. As ADSCs adhere to bone marrow endothelium, MSCs express several different molecules that increase the adhesion such as CD44 isoforms and integrins. As ADSCs transmigrate through vessels in bone marrow, interaction and signaling between stromal-derived chemokine factor -1 (SDF-1) and receptor CXCR4 is the most crucial process.^[9][10]

Isolation or expansion from fats

Mechanical+Enzymatic(ME) and mechanical methods are the most common isolation methods, although there is no standard method.^[11] Accordingly, Dr. Glass and Ferretti proposed one of the ME methods which is to apply tumescent-assisted liposuction using a mechanical or ultrasound-assisted liposuction cannula. Through liposuction, the fat sample is digested by enzymatic activities of collagenase or trypsin in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle's medium (DMEM). The resultant tissue suspension undergoes incubation and agitation at around 37 °C and is filtered through a strainer to remove unnecessary debris. The cell pallet left after centrifugation is called SVF. The SVF is seeded on the plate, after the second suspension with bovine calf serum, 1% penicillin or streptomycin, and L-glutamine. The adherent properties of ADSCs on the plate allow isolation of ADSCs.^[12] However, due to the inconvenience of isolating the pure ADSCs, a cell-assisted lipo-transfer (CAL) is more commonly used. CAL transforms poor ADSCs into enriched ADSCs by mixing isolate SVF and aspirated fat.^[13] The efficacy of CAL was proven by the increased survival rate of autologous breast augmentation when introduced around 270ml for each breast.^[14]

Breast implant

Around 1.5 million women have breast implant surgeries per year.^[15] Yet the side effects of the fat transplant can be severe and cause irreversible damage to the patient's body. The most well-known side effects are foreign body sensation, calcification, fat cell necrosis, capsular construction, rupture, cysts and some fat cells leaving the implanted area.

Benign calcification in breast, at high magnification

In most cases, calcification and cysts are the biggest threat of breast augmentation surgery. Fat stem cells failed to pick up a new blood supply will die and be removed from the body by immune cells. However, when this clearing process miss removing dead cells the cluster will lead to calcification and cysts formation. These are visible on the breast as lump sometimes and are more dangerous when these un-picked up dead cells are detected as cancer cells which disturbs accurate diagnosis of breast cancer. The calcified tissue will be diagnosed as a 'benign' cancer and not cause any harm. However, if the tissue is severely damaged the entire breast needs to be removed. Once a patient is diagnosed with calcification of breast implant, regular mammograms should be done to monitor the possible cancer development.^[16]

Facial fat transfer

Gornitsky et al. from McGill University conducted a systematic review of 4577 patients who have received the facial fat transfer. The most prevalent side effects were reported like the following: asymmetry, skin irregularities, hypertrophy, prolonged edema, fat necrosis and such.^[17]

Oncology safety

The homing effect may have advantages in increasing the long-term survival of transferred fat, but concerns remain for patients with post-oncologic history, specifically breast cancer. It is more alarming since breast tumors are closely located with adipose tissue, as they develop a favorable microenvironment for cancer progression through homing and migration.^[18] There are cancer-associated adipocytes (CAAs) crucial for metastasis and the progression of tumors. Under normal conditions, the adipocytes are mature and they do not differentiate. However, when ADSCs migrate and circulate in blood vessels by homing properties can result in the progression of tumor growth. Furthermore, the properties of migratory cells also promote tumor growth by secretion of trophic factors such as adipokines, including FGF, ILs and IGF-binding proteins. This increases vascularisation as such oncogenic properties are unusual for other BM-MSCs or lung-derived MSDCs.^[19]

Stem cell market

The stem cell market has grown largely along with the increasing awareness of stem cells in regenerative medicine. The Google web search big data analysis showed that the terms “Stem cell facelift” had 197,000 outcomes and “stem cell breast augmentation" had approximately 302,000 outcomes according to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons.^[20]

Nature of stem cell therapies offered across surveyed websites

With the rising interest in stem cell cosmetic therapy, this figure demonstrates the content analysis on the 50 clinical websites that appeared on the Google search platform for “stem cell therapy”, “treatment” or “stem cell facelift” in November 2013. The result showed that (A) 90% of the clinics use Autologous adult stem cell. (B) 71% of clinics obtained stem cells were from patient fat. (C) 90% of procedures delivered cells through subcutaneous methods. (D) facial-anti ageing treatment was advertised the most in “stem cell” treatments as well as “stem cell breast augmentation” therapies.^[21]

Case study: South Korea

The International Association of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (ISAPS), announced the Korean plastic surgery market is estimated to be about the scale of $440 million as of 2017. It is a 1/4 of the world market, and the number of plastic surgeries per year ranked the first (13.5 per 1000 population per year). Korean stem cell markets formed a scale of $1.1 billion in 2016 and they are expected to grow to 26.67% annually by 2025 ($9.5 billion).^[22][23]

In 2017 the government invested in the bio sector for the highest proportion for new drug development (13%), and only 4% on stem cells ($112 million). CartistemTM, Inc. Medipost published successfully developed stem cell-based degenerative knee cartilage therapy and has achieved more than 10 billion sales since 2017.^[22][23]