Dissociative trance
The Oracle at Delphi was famous for her divinatory trances throughout the ancient Mediterranean world. Oil painting, John Collier, 1891
SpecialtyPsychiatry

Trance is a state of semi-consciousness in which a person is not self-aware and is either altogether unresponsive to external stimuli (but nevertheless capable of pursuing and realizing an aim) or is selectively responsive in following the directions of the person (if any) who has induced the trance. Trance states may occur involuntarily and unbidden.

The term trance may be associated with hypnosis, meditation, magic, flow, prayer, psychedelic drugs, and altered states of consciousness.

Etymology

Trance in its modern meaning comes from an earlier meaning of "a dazed, half-conscious or insensible condition or state of fear", via the Old French transe "fear of evil", from the Latin transīre "to cross", "pass over".[1]

Working models

Wier, in his 1995 book, Trance: from magic to technology, defines a simple trance (p. 58) as a state of mind being caused by cognitive loops where a cognitive object (a thought, an image, a sound, an intentional action) repeats long enough to result in various sets of disabled cognitive functions. Wier represents all trances (which include sleep and watching television) as taking place on a dissociated trance plane where at least some cognitive functions such as volition are disabled; as is seen in what is typically termed a 'hypnotic trance'.[2] With this definition, meditation, hypnosis, addictions and charisma are seen as being trance states. In Wier's 2007 book, The Way of Trance, he elaborates on these forms, adds ecstasy as an additional form and discusses the ethical implications of his model, including magic and government use which he terms "trance abuse".

John Horgan in Rational Mysticism (2003) explores the neurological mechanisms and psychological implications of trances and other mystical manifestations. Horgan incorporates literature and case-studies from a number of disciplines in this work: chemistry, physics, psychology, radiology, and theology.

Trance states

Trance conditions include all the different states of mind, emotions, moods, and daydreams that human beings experience. All activities which engage a human involve the filtering of information coming into sense modalities, and this influences brain functioning and consciousness. Therefore, trance may be understood as a way for the mind to change the way it filters information in order to provide more efficient use of the mind's resources.

Trance states may also be accessed or induced by various modalities and are considered by some people to be a way of accessing the unconscious mind for the purposes of relaxation, healing, intuition, and inspiration. There is an extensive documented history of trance as evidenced by the case-studies of anthropologists and ethnologists and associated and derivative disciplines. Principles of trance are being explored and documented as are methods of trance induction. Mind functioning during trance and benefits of trance states are being explored by medical and scientific inquiry.[3][4] Many traditions and rituals employ trance. Trance also has a function in religion and mystical experience.

Castillo (1995) states that: "Trance phenomena result from the behavior of intense focusing of attention, which is the key psychological mechanism of trance induction. Adaptive responses, including institutionalized forms of trance, are 'tuned' into neural networks in the brain and depend to a large extent on the characteristics of culture. Culture-specific organizations exist in the structure of individual neurons and in the organizational formation of neural networks."[5]

Hoffman (1998: p. 9) states that: "Trance is still conventionally defined as a state of reduced consciousness, or a somnolent state. However, the more recent anthropological definition, linking it to 'altered states of consciousness' (Charles Tart), is becoming increasingly accepted."[6]

Hoffman (1998, p. 9) asserts that: "...the trance state should be discussed in the plural, because there is more than one altered state of consciousness significantly different from everyday consciousness."[6]

History

Mystics

As the mystical experience of mystics generally entails direct connection, communication and communion with the divine; trance and cognate experience are endemic. (see Yoga, Sufism, Shaman, Umbanda, Crazy Horse, etc.)

As shown by Jonathan Garb,[7] trance techniques also played a role in Lurianic Kabbalah, the mystical life of the circle of Moshe Hayyim Luzzatto and Hasidism.

Military

Joseph Jordania proposed the term "battle trance" in 2011 for a mental state when combatants do not feel fear and pain, and they lose their individual identity and acquire a collective identity.[8]

Christian mystics

Many Christian mystics are documented as having experiences that may be considered as cognate with trance, such as: Hildegard of Bingen, John of the Cross, Meister Eckhart, Saint Theresa (as seen in the Bernini sculpture), and Francis of Assisi.

Mesmer and the origin of hypnotherapy

  • Mesmer, an influential but discredited promoter of trance states and their curative powers.
  • Milton Erickson, the founder of hypnotherapy who introduced trance and hypnosis to orthodox medicine and psychotherapy—hypnosis here is something different from traditional clinical hypnosis.

Trance in American Christianity

Taves (1999) charts the synonymic language of trance in the American Christian traditions: power or presence or indwelling of God, or Christ, or the Spirit, or spirits. Typical expressions include "the indwelling of the Spirit" (Jonathan Edwards), "the witness of the Spirit" (John Wesley), "the power of God" (early American Methodists), being "filled with the Spirit of the Lord" (early Adventists; see charismatic Adventism), "communing with spirits" (Spiritualists), "the Christ within" (New Thought), "streams of holy fire and power" (Methodist holiness), "a religion of the Spirit and Power" (the Emmanuel Movement), and "the baptism of the Holy Spirit" (early Pentecostals). (Taves, 1999: 3)

Trance and Anglo-American Protestants

Taves (1999) well-referenced book on trance charts the experience of Anglo-American Protestants and those who left the Protestant movement beginning with the transatlantic awakening in the early 18th century and ending with the rise of the psychology of religion and the birth of Pentecostalism in the early 20th century. This book focuses on a class of seemingly involuntary acts alternately explained in religious and secular terminology. These involuntary experiences include uncontrolled bodily movements (fits, bodily exercises, falling as dead, catalepsy, convulsions); spontaneous vocalizations (crying out, shouting, speaking in tongues); unusual sensory experiences (trances, visions, voices, clairvoyance, out-of-body experiences); and alterations of consciousness and/or memory (dreams, somnium, somnambulism, mesmeric trance, mediumistic trance, hypnosis, possession, alternating personality) (Taves, 1999: 3).

Trance induction and sensory modality

Trance-like states are often interpreted as religious ecstasy or visions and can be deliberately induced using a variety of techniques, including prayer, religious rituals, meditation, pranayama (breathwork or breathing exercises), physical exercise, sexual intercourse, music, dancing, sweating (e.g. sweat lodge), fasting, thirsting, and the consumption of psychotropic drugs such as cannabis. Sensory modality is the channel or conduit for the induction of the trance. Sometimes an ecstatic experience takes place in occasion of contact with something or somebody perceived as extremely beautiful or holy. It may also happen without any known reason. The particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy is usually one that is associated with that individual's particular religious and cultural traditions. As a result, an ecstatic experience is usually interpreted within the context of a particular individual's religious and cultural traditions. These interpretations often include statements about contact with supernatural or spiritual beings, about receiving new information as a revelation, also religion-related explanations of subsequent change of values, attitudes, and behavior (e.g. in case of religious conversion).

Benevolent, neutral and malevolent trances may be induced (intentionally, spontaneously and/or accidentally) by different methods:

Auditory driving and auditory art

Charles Tart provides a useful working definition of auditory driving. It is the induction of trance through the sense of hearing. Auditory driving works through a process known as entrainment.[9][10]

The usage of repetitive rhythms to induce trance states is an ancient phenomenon. Throughout the world, shamanistic practitioners have been employing this method for millennia. Anthropologists and other researchers have documented the similarity of shamanistic auditory driving rituals among different cultures.

Said simply, entrainment is the synchronization of different rhythmic cycles. Breathing and heart rate have been shown to be affected by auditory stimulus, along with brainwave activity. The ability of rhythmic sound to affect human brainwave activity, especially theta brainwaves, is the essence of auditory driving, and is the cause of the altered states of consciousness that it can induce.[11]

Visual driving and visual art

Nowack and Feltman published an article entitled "Eliciting the Photic Driving Response" which states that the EEG photic driving response is a sensitive neurophysiological measure which has been employed to assess chemical and drug effects, forms of epilepsy, neurological status of Alzheimer's patients, and physiological arousal. Photic driving also impacts upon the psychological climate of a person by producing increased visual imagery and decreased physiological and subjective arousal. In this research by Nowack and Feltman, all participants reported increased visual imagery during photic driving, as measured by their responses to an imagery questionnaire.

Dennis Wier[12] states that over two millennia ago Ptolemy and Apuleius found that differing rates of flickering lights affected states of awareness and sometimes induced epilepsy. Wier also asserts that it was discovered in the late 1920s that when light was shined on closed eyelids it resulted in an echoing production of brainwave frequencies. Wier also opined that in 1965 Grey employed a stroboscope to project rhythmic light flashes into the eyes at a rate of 10–25 Hz (cycles per second). Grey discovered that this stimulated similar brainwave activity.

Research by Thomas Budzynski, Oestrander et al., in the use of brain machines suggest that photic driving via the suprachiasmatic nucleus and direct electrical stimulation and driving via other mechanisms and modalities, may entrain processes of the brain facilitating rapid and enhanced learning, produce deep relaxation, euphoria, an increase in creativity, and problem solving propensity may be associated with enhanced concentration and accelerated learning. The theta range and the border area between alpha and theta has generated considerable research interest.

Kinesthetic driving and somatic art

Charles Tart provides a useful working definition of kinesthetic driving. It is the induction of trance through the sense of touch, feeling, or emotions. Kinesthetic driving works through a process known as entrainment.

The rituals practiced by some athletes in preparing for contests are dismissed as superstition, but this is a device of sport psychologists to help them to attain an ecstasy-like state. Joseph Campbell had a peak experience whilst running. Roger Bannister on breaking the four-minute mile (Cameron, 1993: 185): "No longer conscious of my movement, I discovered a new unity with nature. I had found a new source of power and beauty, a source I never dreamt existed." Roger Bannister later became a distinguished neurologist.

Mechanisms and disciplines that include kinesthetic driving may include: dancing, walking meditation, yoga and asana, mudra, juggling, poi (juggling), etc.

Sufism (the mystical branch of Islam) has theoretical and metaphoric texts regarding ecstasy as a state of connection with Allah. Sufi practice rituals (dhikr, sema) use body movement and music to achieve the state.

Types and varieties

  • Agape or "Divine Love": the term agape appears in the Odyssey twice, where the word describes something that creates contentedness within the speaker.
  • Bhakti: (Devanāgarī: भक्ति) is a word of Sanskrit origin meaning "devotion" and also "the path of devotion" itself, as in Bhakti-yoga. Within Hinduism the word is used exclusively to denote devotion to a particular deity or form of God. Within Vaishnavism bhakti is only used in conjunction with Vishnu or one of his associated incarnations, it is likewise used towards Shiva by followers of Shaivism. Saints in these traditions exhibit different trance states or ecstasy.
  • Communion: In the monotheistic tradition, religious ecstasy is usually associated with communion and oneness with God. Indeed, ecstasy is the primary vehicle for the type of prophetic visions and revelations found in the Bible. However, such experiences can also be personal mystical experiences with no significance to anyone but the person experiencing them.
  • In Christianity, the ecstatic experiences of the Apostles Peter and Paul are recorded in Acts 10:10, 11:5 and 22:17.
  • In hagiography (writings on the subject of Christian saints) many instances are recorded in which saints are granted ecstasies. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia,[13] religious ecstasy (called supernatural ecstasy) includes two elements: one, interior and invisible, in which the mind rivets its attention on a religious subject, and another, corporeal and visible, in which the activity of the senses is suspended, reducing the effect of external sensations upon the subject and rendering him or her resistant to awakening.
  • Maenads and Bacchae: in Greek mythology, Maenads were female worshippers of Dionysus, the Greek god of mystery, wine and intoxication, and the Roman god Bacchus. The word literally translates as "raving ones". They were known as wild, insane women who could not be reasoned with. The mysteries of Dionysus inspired the women to ecstatic frenzy; they indulged in copious amounts of violence, bloodletting, sexual activity, self-intoxication, and mutilation. They were usually pictured as crowned with vine leaves, clothed in fawnskins and carrying the thyrsus, and dancing with wild abandon. They were also characterized as entranced women, wandering through the forests and hills.[14] The Maenads were also known as Bassarids (or Bacchae or Bacchantes) in Roman mythology, after the penchant of the equivalent Roman god, Bacchus, to wear a fox-skin, a bassaris.
  • Norse berserkers were said to have often entered battle entrenched in a state of primal rage, biting their shields, and howling like wolves. This fanaticism was so powerful that they were known to continue fighting even after having lost limbs or being otherwise deeply wounded.
  • Peak experiences: is a term developed by Abraham Maslow and used to describe certain extra-personal and ecstatic states, particularly ones tinged with themes of unification, harmonization, and interconnectedness. Participants characterize these experiences, and the revelations imparted therein, as possessing an ineffably mystical (or overtly religious) quality or essence.
  • Rapture or religious ecstasy: is an altered state of consciousness characterized by greatly reduced external awareness and expanded interior mental and spiritual awareness which is frequently accompanied by visions and emotional/intuitive (and sometimes physical) euphoria. Although the experience is usually brief in physical time, there are records of such experiences lasting several days or even more, and of recurring experiences of ecstasy during one's lifetime. Subjective perception of time, space, and/or self may strongly change or disappear during ecstasy.
  • Samādhi: yoga provides techniques to attain a state of ecstasy called samādhi. According to practitioners, there are various stages of ecstasy, the highest of which is called Nirvikalpa samādhi. Different traditions have different understanding of Samādhi.[15]
  • Some charismatic Christians practice ecstatic states (called, e.g., "being slain in the Spirit") and interpret these as given by the Holy Spirit.
  • Trance states have also long been used by shamans, mystics, and fakirs in healing rituals, being particularly cultivated in some religions, such as Tibetan Buddhism. Australian shamanism has been observed.[16][17]

Divination

Divination is a cultural universal which anthropologists have observed as being present in many religions and cultures in all ages up to the present day (see sibyl). Divination may be defined as a mechanism for fortune-telling by ascertaining information by interpretation of omens or an alleged supernatural agency. Divination often entails ritual, and is often facilitated by trance.

Nechung Oracle

In Tibet, oracles have played, and continue to play, an important part in religion and government. The word oracle is used by Tibetans to refer to the spirit, deity or entity that enters those men and women who act as media between the natural and the spiritual realms. The media are, therefore, known as kuten, which literally means, "the physical basis".

The Dalai Lama, who lives in exile in northern India, still consults an oracle known as the Nechung Oracle, which is considered the official state oracle of the government of Tibet. He gives a complete description of the process of trance and possession in his book Freedom in Exile.[18]

Scientific disciplines

Convergent disciplines of neuroanthropology, ethnomusicology, electroencephalography (EEG), neurotheology, and cognitive neuroscience, amongst others, are conducting research into the trance induction of altered states of consciousness resulting from neuron entrainment with the driving of sensory modalities, for example polyharmonics, multiphonics, and percussive polyrhythms through the channel of the auditory and kinesthetic modality.[19]

Neuroanthropology and cognitive neuroscience are conducting research into the trance induction of altered states of consciousness (possibly engendering higher consciousness) resulting from neuron firing entrainment with these polyharmonics and multiphonics. Related research has been conducted into neural entraining with percussive polyrhythms. The timbre of traditional singing bowls and their polyrhythms and multiphonics are considered meditative and calming, and the harmony inducing effects of this tool to potentially alter consciousness are being explored by scientists, medical professionals and therapists.

Brainwaves and brain rhythms

Scientific advancement and new technologies such as computerized EEG, positron emission tomography, regional cerebral blood flow, and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, are providing measurable tools to assist in understanding trance phenomena.

There are four principal brainwave states that range from high-amplitude, low-frequency delta to low-amplitude, high-frequency beta. These states range from deep dreamless sleep to a state of high arousal. These four brainwave states are common throughout humans. All levels of brainwaves exist in everyone at all times, even though one is foregrounded depending on the activity level. When a person is in an aroused state and exhibiting a beta brainwave pattern, their brain also exhibits a component of alpha, theta, and delta, even though only a trace may be present.[20]

The University of Philadelphia study on some Christians at the Freedom Valley Worship Center in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, revealed that glossolalia-speaking (vocalizing or praying in unrecognizable form of language which is seen in members of certain Christian sects) activates areas of the brain out of voluntary control. In addition, the frontal lobe of the brain, which monitors speech, significantly diminished in activity as the study participants spoke glossolalia.[21] Dr. Andrew B. Newberg, in analysis of his earlier studies as opposed to the MRI scans of the test subjects, stated that Buddhist monks in meditation[22] and Franciscan nuns in prayer[23] exhibited increased activity in the frontal lobe, and subsequently their behaviors, very much under voluntary control. The investigation found this particular beyond-body-control characteristic only in tongue-speakers (also see xenoglossia).

Studies have been conducted in France and Belgium on a French woman who has received extensive training in the Mongolian shamanic tradition and becomes therefore capable of self-inducing a trance state.[24][3] Quantitative EEG mapping and  low resolution electromagnetic tomography show that shamanic trance involves a shift from the normally dominant left analytical to the right experiential mode of self-experience, and from the normally dominant anterior prefrontal to the posterior somatosensory mode.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
  2. ↑ "A Gentle Introduction to Trance Theory | the Trance Institute". Archived from the original on 8 December 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2009.
  3. 1 2 Flor-Henry P, Shapiro Y, Sombrun C (31 December 2017). Walla P (ed.). "Brain changes during a shamanic trance: Altered modes of consciousness, hemispheric laterality, and systemic psychobiology". Cogent Psychology. 4 (1): 1313522. doi:10.1080/23311908.2017.1313522. S2CID 7912635.
  4. ↑ Grégoire C, Marie N, Sombrun C, Faymonville ME, Kotsou I, van Nitsen V, et al. (2022). "Hypnosis, Meditation, and Self-Induced Cognitive Trance to Improve Post-treatment Oncological Patients' Quality of Life: Study Protocol". Frontiers in Psychology. 13: 807741. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.807741. PMC 8866821. PMID 35222195.
  5. ↑ Castillo RJ (March 1995). "Culture, Trance, and the Mind-Brain". Anthropology of Consciousness. 6 (1): 17–34. doi:10.1525/ac.1995.6.1.17.
  6. 1 2 Hoffman K (1998). Ornitz L (ed.). The Trance Workbook: understanding & using the power of altered states. Translated by Homann E, Williams C, El Mogharbel C. Sterling. p. 9. ISBN 0-8069-1765-2.
  7. ↑ (Shamanic Trance in Modern Kabbalah, 2011)
  8. ↑ Joseph Jordania, Why do People Sing? Music in Human Evolution. Logos, 2011
  9. ↑ Sameiro-Barbosa, Catia M.; Geiser, Eveline (10 August 2016). "Sensory Entrainment Mechanisms in Auditory Perception: Neural Synchronization Cortico-Striatal Activation". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 10: 361. doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00361. PMC 4978719. PMID 27559306.
  10. ↑ McConnell, Patrick A.; Froeliger, Brett; Garland, Eric L.; Ives, Jeffrey C.; Sforzo, Gary A. (2014). "Auditory driving of the autonomic nervous system: Listening to theta-frequency binaural beats post-exercise increases parasympathetic activation and sympathetic withdrawal". Frontiers in Psychology. 5. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01248. PMC 4231835. PMID 25452734.
  11. ↑ Young, Asa (1 March 2022). "Altered States of Consciousness Induced by Exogenous Audio SignalsToward a Better Understanding of the Oscillatory Correlates of Consciousness". Resonance. 3 (1): 28–40. doi:10.1525/res.2022.3.1.28.
  12. ↑ Wier DR (15 September 2006). "A Suggested Model for Trance". The Trance Institute. Archived from the original on 15 September 2006. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
  13. ↑ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Ecstasy". newadvent.org.
  14. ↑ Wiles, David (2000). Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. Source:
  15. ↑ Sarbacker SR (2012). Samadhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga. SUNY Press. p. 13.
  16. ↑ Lawlor (1991: p. 374) states that: "The supernormal, super sensory powers of Aboriginal wise woman and men of high degree, by their own accounts, comes directly from initiations administered by the ancestral sky heroes themselves and by the totemic spirits. Those who have gone through these initiations alone, in a deep trance that makes them lose their personal identities and confront manifestations of the ancestral powers, are held in the highest regard."
  17. ↑ Lawlor (1991: p. 303) states that: "One such animal dance ceremony was observed and photographed by Gillen and Spencer. More than 30 naked men gathered in a large circle. One by one, each man performed the dance of the animal to be hunted while the others sang and slapped their buttocks to create a percussive beat for the dancer. The slapping sound was so loud that it could be heard for miles across the surrounding desert. The dance continued for hours, with each man dancing frenetically until he dropped from exhaustion. The eyes of the onlookers soon became glazed with entrancement; their penises were erect in a state of ecstatic arousal. Finally, after the last man had performed the animal dance and collapsed in exhaustion, the entire group leaped on him, emitting a loud abandoned cry. The next day the hunt began."
  18. ↑ "Nechung - the State Oracle of Tibet". Archived from the original on 5 December 2006. Retrieved 23 January 2007.
  19. ↑ "Les étranges pouvoirs de la transe sur le cerveau étudiés à l'université". Le Monde.fr (in French). 18 November 2021. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
  20. ↑ "What is the function of the various brainwaves?". Scientific American. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
  21. ↑ Newberg AB, Wintering NA, Morgan D, Waldman MR (November 2006). "The measurement of regional cerebral blood flow during glossolalia: a preliminary SPECT study". Psychiatry Research. 148 (1): 67–71. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2006.07.001. PMID 17046214. S2CID 17079826.
  22. ↑ Newberg A, Alavi A, Baime M, Pourdehnad M, Santanna J, d'Aquili E (April 2001). "The measurement of regional cerebral blood flow during the complex cognitive task of meditation: a preliminary SPECT study". Psychiatry Research. 106 (2): 113–22. doi:10.1016/s0925-4927(01)00074-9. PMID 11306250. S2CID 9230941.
  23. ↑ Newberg A, Pourdehnad M, Alavi A, d'Aquili EG (October 2003). "Cerebral blood flow during meditative prayer: preliminary findings and methodological issues". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 97 (2): 625–30. doi:10.2466/pms.2003.97.2.625. PMID 14620252. S2CID 28963938.
  24. ↑ Gosseries O, Fecchio M, Wolff A, Sanz L, Sombrun C, Vanhaudenhuyse A, Laureys S (2020). "Behavioural and brain responses in cognitive trance: A TMS-EEG case study" (PDF). Clinical Neurophysiology. International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. 131 (2): 586–588. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2019.11.011. PMID 31843502. S2CID 208303833.

Further reading

  • Cameron J (1993). The Artist's Way. Oxford, London: Pan Books. ISBN 0-330-34358-0.
  • Castillo RJ (March 1995). "Culture, Trance, and the Mind-Brain". Anthropology of Consciousness. 6 (1): 17–34. doi:10.1525/ac.1995.6.1.17.
  • Goodman FD (March 1999). "Ritual Body Postures, Channeling, and the Ecstatic Body Trance". Anthropology of Consciousness. 10 (1): 54–59. doi:10.1525/ac.1999.10.1.54.
  • Heinze RI (September 1994). "Applications of Altered States of Consciousness in Daily Life". Anthropology of Consciousness. 5 (3): 8–12. doi:10.1525/ac.1994.5.3.8.
  • Horgan J (2003). Rational Mysticism: Dispatches from the Border Between Science and Spirituality. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0618446636.
  • Hubbard TL (March–June 2003). "Some Correspondences and Similarities of Shamanism and Cognitive Science: Interconnectedness, Extension of Meaning, and Attribution of Mental States". Anthropology of Consciousness. 14 (1): 26–45.
  • Inglis, Brian (1990). Trance: A Natural History of Altered States of Mind. London, Paladin. ISBN 0-586-08933-0
  • James, William The varieties of religious experience (1902) ISBN 0-14-039034-0
  • Lawlor R (1991). Voices of the First Day: Awakening in the Aboriginal dreamtime. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions International, Ltd. ISBN 0-89281-355-5.
  • Lewis IM (March–June 2003). "Trance, Possession, Shamanism and Sex". Anthropology of Consciousness. 14 (1): 20–39. doi:10.1525/ac.2003.14.1.20.
  • McDaniel J (June 1989). The Madness of the Saints: Ecstatic Religion in Bengal. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-55723-5.
  • Michaelson J (1997). "Paths to the Divine: Ecstatics and Theology". Rabbi DovBer of Lubavitch.
  • Maybrey V (17 July 2008). "Speaking in Tongues Medical Study proves Holy Spirit praying". Nightline. ABC. Gettysburg, Philadelphia – via YouTube.
  • Neophytou C (1996). The Encyclopedia of Mind Body and Spirit (Millennium ed.). Yanchep, Western Australia: Lindlahr Book Publishing. ISBN 0-646-26789-2.
  • Nowack WJ, Feltman ML (March 1998). "Technical Tips: Eliciting the Photic Driving Response". American Journal of Electroneurodiagnostic Technology. 38 (1): 43–45. doi:10.1080/1086508X.1998.11079211.
  • Rich GJ (September–December 2001). "Domestic Paths to Altered States and Transformations of Consciousness". Anthropology of Consciousness. 12 (2): 1–3. doi:10.1525/ac.2001.12.2.1.
  • Smith H (2000). Cleansing the Doors of Perception: The Religious Significance of Entheogenic Plants and Chemicals. Tarcher/Putnam. ISBN 1-58542-034-4.
  • Tart CT (2001). States of Consciousness. iUniverse. ISBN 0-595-15196-5.
  • Tart CT (1969). Altered States of Consciousness. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-84560-4.
  • Taves A (1999). Fits, Trances, & Visions: Experiencing Religion and Explaining Experience from Wesley to James. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
  • Vitebsky P (2001). The Shaman: Voyages of the Soul – Trance, Ecstasy and Healing from Siberia to the Amazon. Duncan Baird. ISBN 1-903296-18-8.
  • von Gizycki H, Jean-Louis G, Snyder M, Zizi F, Green H, Giuliano V, Spielman A, Taub H (May 1998). "The effects of photic driving on mood states". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 44 (5): 599–604. doi:10.1016/s0022-3999(97)00204-3. PMID 9623880.
  • Vyner HM (September–December 2002). "The Descriptive Mind Science of Tibetan Buddhist Psychology and the Nature of the Healthy Human Mind". Anthropology of Consciousness. 13 (2): 1–25. doi:10.1525/ac.2002.13.2.1.
  • Wallis R (June–September 1999). "Altered States, Conflicting Cultures: Shamans, Neo-Shamans and Academics". Anthropology of Consciousness. 10 (2–3): 41–49. doi:10.1525/ac.1999.10.2-3.41.
  • Warren J (2007). "The Trance". The Head Trip: Adventures on the Wheel of Consciousness. Toronto: Random House Canada. ISBN 978-0-679-31408-0.* Wier, Dennis R. Trance: from magic to technology (1995) ISBN 1-888428-38-4
  • Wier DR (2007). The Way of Trance. Laytonville, California: Trance Research Foundation. ISBN 978-1-888428-10-0.
  • Wilde S (1996). The Art of Meditation. Carlsbad: Hay House. ISBN 978-1-56170-530-6.
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