The United States government applies sanctions against certain institutions and key members of the Chinese government and its ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP), certain companies linked to the People's Liberation Army (PLA), and other affiliates that the US government has accused of aiding in human rights abuses. The US maintained embargoes against China from the inception of the People's Republic of China in 1949 until 1972. An embargo was reimposed by the US following the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. From 2020 onward, the US imposed sanctions and visa restrictions against several Chinese government officials and companies, in response to the Uyghur genocide, human rights abuses in Hong Kong and Tibet, military-civil fusion, support for the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and fentanyl production.

History

Due to concerns about national security and human rights, the United States has gradually increased sanctions against Chinese businesses and organisations. According to the United States Department of Commerce, 721 Chinese businesses, organizations, and individuals have been added to a "entity list" that restricts their ability to purchase goods from the United States.[1]

Sanctions in the early PRC (1949–1979)

After the establishment of Communist rule in China in 1949, an embargo against the sale of military technology or infrastructure, previously levied against the Soviet Union, was expanded to include the newly established People's Republic of China.[2] Following the onset of the Korean War, further trade restrictions were imposed.[3] According to academic Chun Lin, the embargo resulted in increased Chinese nationalism.[4]

The trade embargo was lifted under President Richard Nixon in 1972 right before the opening of China and establishment of official relations.[5]

Sanctions after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre

Following the Tiananmen Square massacre, the Bush Sr. administration imposed an arms embargo against the PRC after the massacre of the protesters.[6]

The United States has sanctioned and prosecuted Chinese companies and individuals for providing material assistance to Iran's missile program. In 2014, the U.S. Treasury Department sanctioned Sinotech Dalian Carbon and Graphite Manufacturing Corporation for helping Iran buy parts to produce ballistic missiles.[7] In June 2023, the U.S. Treasury Department sanctioned Zhejiang Qingji and other entities in China and Hong Kong for selling centrifuge equipment to Iran.[8][9] In September 2023, six Chinese entities were sanctioned for allegedly assisting the Iran Aircraft Manufacturing Industries Corporation make drones to attack oil tankers and for export to Russia's military.[10]

Sanctions under the Trump administration

Ban of Huawei and ZTE equipment

In August 2018, President Trump signed the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 (NDAA 2019) which banned Huawei and ZTE equipment from being used by the U.S. federal government, citing security concerns.[11][12][13]

In addition, on 15 May 2019, the Department of Commerce added Huawei and 70 foreign subsidiaries and "affiliates" to its Entity List under the Export Administration Regulations, citing the company having been indicted for "knowingly and willfully causing the export, re-export, sale and supply, directly and indirectly, of goods, technology and services (banking and other financial services) from the United States to Iran and the government of Iran without obtaining a license from the Department of Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC)".[14] This restricts U.S. companies from doing business with Huawei without a government license.[15][16][17][18] Various U.S.-based companies immediately froze their business with Huawei to comply with the regulation.[19] That same year, it was determined that Huawei also provided equipment to build North Korea’s 3G network.[20]

Currency manipulator designation

In August 2019, the United States Department of the Treasury designated China a currency manipulator,[21][22][23] which resulted in China being excluded from U.S. government procurement contracts.[21] The designation was withdrawn in January 2020 after China agreed to refrain from devaluing its currency to make its own goods cheaper for foreign buyers.[24]

Sanctions under Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act

On July 9, 2020, the Trump administration imposed sanctions and visa restrictions against senior Chinese officials, including CCP Politburo member Chen Quanguo, Zhu Hailun, Wang Mingshan (王明山) and Huo Liujun (霍留军). With sanctions, they and their immediate relatives are barred from entering the US and will have US-based assets frozen.[25] In response, the Chinese government announced sanctions against US Senators Ted Cruz, Marco Rubio, and other American officials.[26]

Sanctions under Hong Kong Autonomy Act

In August 2020, Chief Executive Carrie Lam and ten other Hong Kong government officials were sanctioned by the United States Department of the Treasury under an executive order by President Trump for undermining Hong Kong's autonomy.[27][28][29] The sanction is based on the Hong Kong Autonomy Act and Lam would be listed in the Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List.

On December 7, 2020, pursuant to the order, the US Department of the Treasury imposed sanctions on entire 14 Vice Chairpersons of the National People's Congress of China, for "undermining Hong Kong's autonomy and restricting the freedom of expression or assembly".[30]

Prohibition of investment in companies linked to China’s military

On November 12, 2020, President Donald Trump signed Executive Order 13959, titled "Addressing the Threat From Securities Investments That Finance Communist Chinese Military Companies". The executive order prohibits all U.S. investors (institutional and retail investors alike) from purchasing or investing in securities of companies identified by the U.S. Department of Defense as "Communist Chinese military companies."[31][32] As of January 14, 2021, 44 Chinese companies were identified. Five of these companies are to be delisted by the New York Stock Exchange by March 2021.[33] On January 13, 2021, the executive order was amended to require divestment from the companies by November 11, 2021.[34]

Sanctions under the Biden administration

Russian invasion of Ukraine

In June 2022, the United States Department of Commerce placed five Hong Kong companies on the Bureau of Industry and Security's Entity List for providing support to Russia's military.[35][36] In September 2022, the Office of Foreign Assets Control sanctioned Sinno Electronics of Shenzhen for supplying a Russian military procurement network.[37][38]

In January 2023, the U.S. Treasury Department sanctioned Spacety China, also known as Changsha Tianyi Space Science and Technology Research Institute Co. Ltd., for providing satellite imagery to the Wagner Group.[39] In February 2023, the U.S. Commerce Department added AOOK Technology Ltd, Beijing Ti-Tech Science and Technology Development Co, Beijing Yunze Technology Co, and China HEAD Aerospace Technology Co to the Entity List for aiding Russia's military.[40][41][42]

In March 2023, the U.S. Treasury Department sanctioned five Chinese companies for supplying equipment to the Iran Aircraft Manufacturing Industries Corporation, which manufactures HESA Shahed 136 drones used by Russia against Ukraine.[43][44]

In October 2023, the US Department of Commerce added 42 Chinese companies to the Entity List for supplying Russia with microelectronics for missile and drone guidance systems.[45]

Sanctions on Chinese semiconductor industry

On October 7, 2022, the Bureau of Industry and Security of the United States Department of Commerce implemented controls related to advanced computing and semiconductor manufacturing in China. Some of these controls began immediately whereas others became effective on October 12, 2022, and October 21, 2022.[46][47][48]

In March 2023, the U.S. Department of Commerce added 28 additional Chinese firms to the Entity List, including Inspur and Loongson, for acquiring American technology in support of the PLA.[49][50] In October 2023, the Department of Commerce added Biren Technology and Moore Threads to the Entity List.[51][52]

Sanctions on producers of fentanyl precursors

Fentanyl. 2 mg (white powder to the right) is a lethal dose in most people.[53] US penny is 19 mm (0.75 in) wide.

In April 2023, OFAC sanctioned two companies and four individuals in China, pursuant to Executive Order 14059, for supplying precursor chemicals for fentanyl production to drug cartels in Mexico.[54][55] In May 2023, OFAC sanctioned an additional seven companies and six people in China for supplying equipment to cartels for fentanyl production.[56] In June 2023, U.S. federal prosecutors announced criminal indictments of fentanyl precursor producers in China.[57] In October 2023, OFAC sanctioned a China-based network of fentanyl manufacturers and distributors.[58][59]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Swanson, Ana (2023-07-07). "The Contentious U.S.-China Relationship, by the Numbers". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-07-10.
  2. ↑ Cain, Frank (March 1, 2020). "America's trade embargo against China and the East in the Cold War Years". Journal of Transatlantic Studies. 18 (1): 19–35. doi:10.1057/s42738-019-00037-7. S2CID 216500361.
  3. ↑ "Milestones: 1953–1960 - Office of the Historian". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 2020-10-20. Retrieved 2020-10-21.
  4. ↑ Lin, Chun (2006). The Transformation of Chinese Socialism. Duke University Press. p. 62. doi:10.1515/9780822388364. ISBN 978-0-8223-3785-0. OCLC 63178961.
  5. ↑ Chen, Xin-zhu J. (2006). "China and the US Trade Embargo, 1950–1972". American Journal of Chinese Studies. 13 (2): 169–186. JSTOR 44288827.
  6. ↑ "U.S. and European Union Arms Sales Since the 1989 Embargoes" (PDF). Government Accountability Office. April 28, 1998. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-10-27. Retrieved 2020-10-23.
  7. ↑ "U.S. charges Chinese national with providing weapons materials to Iran". Reuters. 2023-05-16. Retrieved 2023-05-18.
  8. ↑ Psaledakis, Daphne (2023-06-06). "US slaps sanctions on Iranian, Chinese targets over Tehran's missile, military programs". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-06-06.
  9. ↑ Smagalla, David (2023-06-06). "Chinese, Hong Kong, Iranian Firms Sanctioned for Allegedly Aiding Iran Missile Program". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2023-06-07.
  10. ↑ Shepardson, David; Alper, Alexandra (2023-09-25). "US hits Chinese, Russian firms over Moscow military aid". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-09-26.
  11. ↑ "Trump signs bill banning government use of Huawei and ZTE tech". The Verge. 13 August 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-05-29. Retrieved 2021-03-02.
  12. ↑ "New defense bill bans the U.S. Government from using Huawei and ZTE tech". TechCrunch. 14 August 2018. Archived from the original on 2021-04-28. Retrieved 2021-04-29.
  13. ↑ Kastrenakes, Jacob (2018-08-13). "Trump signs bill banning government use of Huawei and ZTE tech". The Verge. Archived from the original on 29 May 2019. Retrieved 2019-05-29.
  14. ↑ "Addition of Entities to the Entity List". Federal Register. 2019-05-21. Archived from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 2019-06-08.
  15. ↑ Webster, Graham (May 18, 2019). "It's not just Huawei. Trump's new tech sector order could ripple through global supply chains". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 20 May 2019. Retrieved May 19, 2019.
  16. ↑ "Tech stocks slide on US decision to blacklist Huawei and 70 affiliates". TechCrunch. 16 May 2019. Archived from the original on 2020-06-16. Retrieved 2019-05-18.
  17. ↑ Kuo, Lily; Siddiqui, Sabrina (2019-05-16). "Huawei hits back over Trump's national emergency on telecoms 'threat'". The Guardian. Washington. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 20 May 2019. Retrieved 2019-05-18.
  18. ↑ "US places China's Huawei and 70 affiliates on trade blacklist". South China Morning Post. 16 May 2019. Archived from the original on 22 May 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
  19. ↑ Satariano, Adam; Zhong, Raymond; Wakabayashi, Daisuke (2019-05-20). "U.S. Tech Suppliers, Including Google, Restrict Dealings With Huawei After Trump Order". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 2019-05-28.
  20. ↑ "Huawei's North Korea 3G Collaboration Likely Violated Sanctions, Export Laws, Experts Say". Radio Free Asia. Retrieved 2023-02-20.
  21. 1 2 Shalal, Andrea; Lawder, David; Wroughton, Lesley; Brice, Makini (August 5, 2019). "U.S. designates China as currency manipulator for first time in decades". Reuters. Archived from the original on December 24, 2020. Retrieved March 2, 2021.
  22. ↑ "Treasury Designates China as a Currency Manipulator" (Press release). United States Department of the Treasury. August 5, 2019. Archived from the original on August 6, 2019. Retrieved March 2, 2021.
  23. ↑ "Trump pressured Mnuchin to label China 'currency manipulator', a move he had previously resisted". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2021-03-15. Retrieved 2021-03-02.
  24. ↑ "US reverses China 'currency manipulator' label". BBC News. 14 January 2020. Archived from the original on 2021-03-08. Retrieved 2021-03-02.
  25. ↑ "US sanctions Chinese officials over Xinjiang 'violations'". BBC News. July 9, 2020. Archived from the original on July 10, 2020. Retrieved August 17, 2020.
  26. ↑ Zhao, Suisheng (2023). The Dragon Roars Back: Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 95. doi:10.1515/9781503634152. ISBN 978-1-5036-3088-8. OCLC 1331741429.
  27. ↑ "US sanctions Hong Kong leader Carrie Lam, police chief and 9 other top officials for 'undermining autonomy'". Hong Kong Free Press. 7 August 2020. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
  28. ↑ Macias, Amanda (7 August 2020). "U.S. sanctions Hong Kong leader Carrie Lam for carrying out Chinese 'policies of suppression'". CNBC. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
  29. ↑ "Treasury Sanctions Individuals for Undermining Hong Kong's Autonomy". United States Department of the Treasury. 7 August 2020. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
  30. ↑ "SPECIALLY DESIGNATED NATIONALS LIST UPDATE". 7 December 2020. Archived from the original on 7 December 2020. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
  31. ↑ Pamuk, Humeyra , Alexandra Alper, Idrees; Alper, Alexandra; Ali, Idrees (2020-11-13). "Trump bans U.S. investments in companies linked to Chinese military". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2020-12-11. Retrieved 2020-12-15.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ↑ "Executive Order on Addressing the Threat from Securities Investments that Finance Communist Chinese Military Companies". The White House. Archived from the original on 2020-12-14. Retrieved 2020-12-15.
  33. ↑ He, Laura (March 1, 2021). "Wall Street is kicking out yet another big Chinese company". CNN. Archived from the original on 2021-03-02. Retrieved 2021-03-02.
  34. ↑ "Trump bolsters ban on U.S. investments in China". Reuters. 2021-01-14. Archived from the original on 2021-04-29. Retrieved 2021-01-14.
  35. ↑ Alper, Alexandra (2022-06-29). "U.S. accuses five firms in China of supporting Russia's military". Reuters. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  36. ↑ "US blacklists 25 Chinese entities, including firms aiding Russia's military". South China Morning Post. 2022-06-30. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  37. ↑ "Treasury Imposes Swift and Severe Costs on Russia for Putin's Purported Annexation of Regions of Ukraine". U.S. Department of the Treasury. September 30, 2022. Retrieved 2022-09-30.
  38. ↑ Pao, Jeff (2022-06-30). "US starts sanctioning China for supporting Russia". Asia Times. Retrieved 2022-09-30.
  39. ↑ Marlow, Iain; Flatley, Daniel (January 26, 2023). "US Targets Chinese Company in Broader Russia Sanctions Push". Bloomberg News. Retrieved January 26, 2023.
  40. ↑ "US joins EU in rejecting Beijing's peace plan, sanctions more Chinese firms". South China Morning Post. 2023-02-25. Retrieved 2023-02-25.
  41. ↑ Freifeld, Karen; Heavey, Susan; Alper, Alexandra (2023-02-24). "U.S. hits Chinese, Russian firms for aiding Russian military". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-02-25.
  42. ↑ Psaledakis, Daphne; Mohammed, Arshad (2023-04-12). "U.S. sanctions hit over 120 targets supporting Russia's invasion of Ukraine". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-04-12.
  43. ↑ Wang, Orange (2023-03-10). "US sanctions 5 China-based suppliers to Iranian firm selling drones to Russia". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2023-03-10.
  44. ↑ "US sanctions Chinese companies for supplying parts used in Iranian drones". Financial Times. 2023-03-09. Retrieved 2023-03-10.
  45. ↑ "US restricts trade with 42 Chinese entities over Russia military support". Reuters. 2023-10-06. Retrieved 2023-10-07.
  46. ↑ "The United States Announces Export Controls to Restrict China's Ability to Purchase and Manufacture High-End Chips". American Journal of International Law. 117 (1): 144–150. 2023. doi:10.1017/ajil.2022.89. ISSN 0002-9300. S2CID 256194830.
  47. ↑ "Commerce Implements New Export Controls on Advanced Computing and Semiconductor Manufacturing Items to the People's Republic of China (PRC)". Bureau of Industry and Security. 2022-10-07. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
  48. ↑ Nellis, Stephen; Freifeld, Karen; Alper, Alexandra (2022-10-10). "U.S. aims to hobble China's chip industry with sweeping new export rules". Reuters. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
  49. ↑ Shilov, Anton (2023-03-03). "U.S. Govt Blacklists Chinese Tech Firms Loongson and Inspur". Tom's Hardware. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  50. ↑ Willemyns, Alex (3 March 2023). "US blacklists 28 more Chinese firms". Radio Free Asia. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  51. ↑ "Chinese GPU start-up Moore Threads to cut jobs after US sanctions: report". South China Morning Post. 2023-11-06. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
  52. ↑ "美更新对华芯片出口控制规定，你需要知道的四大要点". Voice of America (in Chinese). 2023-10-18. Retrieved 2023-10-18.
  53. ↑ Fentanyl. Image 4 of 17. US DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration). See archive with caption: "photo illustration of 2 milligrams of fentanyl, a lethal dose in most people".
  54. ↑ Tabachnick, Cara (April 14, 2023). "U.S. sanctions Chinese suppliers of chemicals for fentanyl production". CBS News. Retrieved April 18, 2023.
  55. ↑ "U.S. Sanctions Suppliers of Precursor Chemicals for Fentanyl Production". U.S. Department of the Treasury. April 14, 2023. Retrieved 2023-04-19.
  56. ↑ Farivar, Masood (May 30, 2023). "US Sanctions 17 Chinese, Mexican Targets Over Fentanyl Production". Voice of America. Retrieved June 1, 2023.
  57. ↑ Lynch, Sarah N.; Cohen, Luc; Lynch, Sarah N.; Cohen, Luc (2023-06-23). "US files first-ever charges against Chinese fentanyl manufacturers". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-06-24.
  58. ↑ Goudsward, Andrew; Psaledakis, Daphne (2023-10-03). "US takes action against Chinese companies, people tied to fentanyl". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-10-03.
  59. ↑ "Treasury Targets Large Chinese Network of Illicit Drug Producers". U.S. Department of the Treasury. 2023-08-28. Retrieved 2023-10-03.
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