The Vinerian Scholarship is a scholarship given to the University of Oxford student who "gives the best performance in the examination for the degree of Bachelor of Civil Law". Currently, £2,500 is given to the winner of the scholarship, with an additional £950 awarded at the examiners' discretion to a proxime accessit (runner-up).[1]
The Vinerian Scholarship is the most prestigious law scholarship awarded by the University of Oxford. Past award holders have distinguished themselves in the judiciary, legal practice, academia, civil service and in other fields. The list of scholars includes four Law Lords (Lord Uthwatt, Lord Hoffmann, Lord Edmund-Davies and Lord Saville), and justices of the highest courts in Australia (Dyson Heydon and Patrick Keane), Canada (Ronald Martland) and South Africa (Edwin Cameron).[2]
Vinerian scholars
Past winners of the Vinerian Scholarship include:
- Charles Abbott, 1st Baron Tenterden
- Sir Thomas Plumer, MR (1777), University College, Oxford
- John Taylor Coleridge (1812)
- Nassau William Senior (1813)
- Frederic Rogers, Baron Blachford (1834), Oriel College, Oxford
- Thomas Henry Haddan (1838)[3] Christ Church, Oxford
- Richard Harington (1858),[4] Christ Church, Oxford
- Robert Kenyon (1872),[5] Christ Church, Oxford
- Sir William Cameron Gull, 2nd Baronet of Brook Street (1883), Christ Church, Oxford
- Henry Straus Quixano Henriques (1891),[6] Worcester College, Oxford
- F. E. Smith, 1st Earl of Birkenhead (1896),[7][8][9] Wadham College, Oxford
- Owyn Murray (1897),[10] Exeter College, Oxford
- Francis de Zulueta (1903), New College, Oxford
- Augustus Uthwatt, Baron Uthwatt (1904 joint),[11] University of Melbourne – Balliol College, Oxford
- Frederick Barrington-Ward (1904 joint),[12] Hertford College, Oxford
- John Clifford Valentine Behan (1906), University of Melbourne – Hertford College, Oxford
- George Johnston (1909),[13] Christ Church, Oxford
- Henry Angus (1914), Balliol College, Oxford
Suspended for World War I (1916 – 1920)
- Harold Hanbury (1921), Brasenose College, Oxford
- Cyril Pearce Harvey (1923),[14][15] Brasenose College, Oxford
- Lord Edmund-Davies (1929), King's College London – Exeter College, Oxford[16]
Change in statute to award scholarship on the basis of BCL examinations (1928)
- Ronald Martland[17] (1931), University of Alberta – Hertford College, Oxford
- John Gabriel Starke[18] (1934), University of Western Australia – Exeter College, Oxford
- Alan Brock Brown (1935),[19] New College, Oxford
- (William) Reginald Verdon-Smith (1936)[20] – Brasenose College, Oxford
- Norman Marsh (1937)[21] – Pembroke College, Oxford
Suspended for World War II (1940 – 1945)
- Zelman Cowen[22] (1947 joint), Melbourne Law School – New College, Oxford
- Rex Welsh[22] (1947 joint), University of the Witwatersrand – Oriel College, Oxford
- Tony Honoré (1948 joint), New College, Oxford
- William Lederman (1948 joint), University of Saskatchewan – Exeter College, Oxford
- Peter Carter (1949), Oriel College, Oxford
- Anthony Machin (1950),[23] New College, Oxford
- Ian Brownlie[24] (1952), Hertford College, Oxford
- Allan Gotlieb (1953), University of California, Berkeley – Christ Church, Oxford
- Laurence Libbert (1954),[25] Magdalen College, Oxford
- Leonard Hubert Hoffmann, Lord Hoffmann[26] (1957), University of Cape Town – The Queen's College, Oxford
- Brian Shaw (1958), University of Melbourne – Magdalen College, Oxford
- Colin Tapper (1959),[27] Magdalen College, Oxford
- Mark Saville, Baron Saville (1960),[28] Brasenose College, Oxford
- Robert Roy Stuart (1961),[29] University of Alberta – Wadham College, Oxford
- Richard Buxton (1962), Exeter College, Oxford
- Jeffrey Hackney (1963), Wadham College, Oxford
- John Eekelaar[30] (1965), King's College London – University College, Oxford
- John Dyson Heydon (1967), University College, Oxford – University College, Oxford
- Ross Alan Sundberg (1969)[31][32] University of Melbourne – Magdalen College, Oxford
- Michael Hart (1970), Magdalen College, Oxford
- Mark Weinberg (1972), Monash University Faculty of Law
- Kenneth Parker (1973) Exeter College, Oxford
- Paul Craig (1974),[33] Worcester College, Oxford
- Hugh Collins (1975), Pembroke College, Oxford
- Peter Cane[34][35] (1976), Sydney Law School – Magdalen College, Oxford
- Patrick Keane[36] (1977), University of Queensland – Magdalen College, Oxford
- Stephen Moriarty (1978),[37] Brasenose College, Oxford
- Michael Hoyle [38] (1979) University of Melbourne – Magdalen College, Oxford
- Mary Stokes (1980),[39] Brasenose College, Oxford
- Edwin Cameron[40] (1982), University of Stellenbosch – Keble College, Oxford
- Norman O'Bryan[41] (1983), Melbourne Law School – Wadham College, Oxford
- Edward Braham (1984),[42] Worcester College, Oxford
- Craig Orr (1985),[43][44] Downing College, Cambridge – University College, Oxford
- Timothy Pitt-Payne (1986 joint), Worcester College, Oxford
- John Gardner[45] (1987), New College, Oxford – New College, Oxford
- Graham Virgo (1988), Downing College, Cambridge – Christ Church, Oxford
- Paul Nicholls[46] (1990), University of Sheffield – Worcester College, Oxford
- Andrew Palmer[47] (1992), Monash University – St John's College, Oxford
- Andrew Bell[48] (1993), Sydney Law School – Magdalen College, Oxford
- Andrew Dickinson (1994),[26][49] St Edmund Hall, Oxford
- Jeremy Kirk[50] (1996), Australian National University – Magdalen College, Oxford
- Ann Buckingham[51] (1997), Victoria University of Wellington
- Henry Forbes Smith[52] (1998 joint), University of Otago – Merton College, Oxford
- Angus Johnston[53] (1999), Brasenose College, Oxford – Brasenose College, Oxford
- Stephen Free[54] (2000), Australian National University – Magdalen College, Oxford
- Burton Ong[55] (2001), National University of Singapore – Merton College, Oxford
- David Murray (2002),[56] Christ Church, Oxford – Christ Church, Oxford
- Ben Allgrove[57] (2003), University of Adelaide – Magdalen College, Oxford
- Tamsyn Allen (2004),[58] Magdalen College, Oxford
- Andrew Scott[59] (2005 joint), St John's College, Oxford
- Marc Brown[60] (2005 joint), Mansfield College, Oxford
- Paul Adams[61] (2006), St Catherine's College, Oxford – St Catherine's College, Oxford
- Imran Afzal[62] (2007), Merton College, Oxford – Merton College, Oxford
- Natasha Bennett[63] (2008), Trinity College, Cambridge – Merton College, Oxford
- Michael Bolding[64] (2009), Melbourne Law School – Lincoln College, Oxford
- Frederick Wilmot-Smith[65] (2010), Christ's College, Cambridge – Balliol College, Oxford
- Niranjan Venkatesan[66] (2011), National Law School of India University – Magdalen College, Oxford
- Naomi Oreb[67] (2012), Sydney Law School – Magdalen College, Oxford
- Ajay Ratan[68] (2013), Downing College, Cambridge – Trinity College, Oxford
- James Ruddell[69] (2014), University of Auckland – Merton College, Oxford
- Owen Lloyd[70] (2015), Merton College, Oxford – Merton College, Oxford
- Marlena Valles[71] (2016), The University of Edinburgh – Jesus College, Oxford
- Tristan Cummings[72] (2017), Merton College, Oxford – Merton College, Oxford
- Christopher Stackpoole[73] (2018), Queensland University of Technology – Merton College, Oxford
- Chen Chen (2019 joint)[74][75] Magdalen College, Oxford – Merton College, Oxford
- Luca Moretti (2019 joint)[74][76] University of Sydney – Christ Church, Oxford
- Alyssa Glass (2020),[77] University of Sydney - Magdalen College, Oxford
- Edward Mordaunt[78] (2021), St Cross College, Oxford
- Ruben Robertson (2022),[79]University of Sydney - Magdalen College, Oxford
- Louis Triggs (2023),[80] King's College London - St Hilda's College, Oxford
Vinerian proxime accessit award holders
- Chloe Carpenter[81] (2000 joint), King's College London - Brasenose College, Oxford
- Catherine Button[82] (2000 joint), University of Melbourne - Magdalen College, Oxford
- Zachary Douglas[83] (2001 joint), University of Melbourne - Lincoln College, Oxford
- Aaron Baker[84] (2001 joint), Saint Louis University - St Peter's College, Oxford
- Mario Mendez[85] (2002), Queen Mary University of London - St Catherine's College, Oxford
- Benjamin Doyle[86] (2003), University of Adelaide - Magdalen College, Oxford
- Rupert Allen[87] (2006), Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge - Merton College, Oxford
- Matthias Kuscher[88] (2007), Clare College, Cambridge - Merton College, Oxford
- Patrick Hayden[2] (2008), Magdalen College, Oxford
- Henry Philips[89] (2009), Worcester College, Oxford
- Catherine Fleming[90] (2010), University College, Oxford
- Alice Irving[91] (2011), University of Otago - Merton College, Oxford
- Colm O'Grady[92] (2013), London School of Economics - Pembroke College, Oxford
- Jack Williams[93] (2014), St Catharine's College, Cambridge - Hertford College, Oxford
- Anthony Wicks[94] (2015), University of Otago - St Cross College, Oxford
- Daniel Fletcher[95] (2016), University of Sydney - Magdalen College, Oxford
- Man Hin Chan[96] (2017 joint), Oriel College, Oxford
- Sinziana Hennig[97] (2017 joint), University of Toronto - St Catherine's College, Oxford
- Chen Xun Chua[98] (2018), Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge - Corpus Christi College, Oxford
- Joshua Underwood[99] (2019 joint), University of Queensland - St Edmund Hall, Oxford
- Ashpen Rajah[99] (2019 joint), Downing College, Cambridge - Trinity College, Oxford
- Alice Zhou[100] (2020 joint), University of Sydney - Christ Church, Oxford
- Elizabeth Huang[100] (2020 joint), Trinity College, Cambridge - Magdalen College, Oxford
- Tiffany Tang[101] (2021), Magdalene College, Cambridge - Magdalen College, Oxford
- Maxwell Davie[102] (2022), Monash University - Mansfield College, Oxford
- Jonathan Hell [103] (2023), University College London - Regent's Park College, Oxford
References
- ↑ "Scholarships and Prizes: Vinerian Scholarship". Oxford University Gazette. University of Oxford (4745). 12 October 2005. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- 1 2 Andrew Dickinson, "A Brief Modern History of the Vinerian Scholarship" (2015), p. 3
- ↑ The Times (London, England), Wednesday, 27 October 1847; p. 3; Issue 19691.
- ↑ "Harington, Sir Richard, (20 May 1835–6 Feb. 1911), DL, JP; Chairman of Herefordshire Quarter Sessions and County Alderman". WHO'S WHO & WHO WAS WHO. 2007. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u186841. ISBN 978-0-19-954089-1. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Kenyon, Robert Lloyd, (18 Jan. 1848–10 Nov. 1931), Chairman of Shropshire Quarter Sessions, 1914–27; Alderman for Shropshire, 1889–1928; Recorder of Oswestry, 1896–1927; Chairman Shropshire Insurance Committee". WHO'S WHO & WHO WAS WHO. 2007. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u212271. ISBN 978-0-19-954089-1. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Henriques, Henry Straus Quixano, (8 Nov. 1866–12 Nov. 1925), KC 1921". WHO'S WHO & WHO WAS WHO. 2007. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u197784. ISBN 978-0-19-954089-1. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ Churchill, Winston (1937). "F. E. Smith". Great Contemporaries. Thornton Butterworth Ltd.
- ↑ Campbell, John (2004). "Smith, Frederick Edwin, first earl of Birkenhead (1872–1930), lawyer and politician" (PDF). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press.
- ↑ The Times (London, England), Monday, 19 March 2007; p.52; Issue 68963.
- ↑ "Henriques, Henry Straus Quixano, (8 Nov. 1866–12 Nov. 1925), KC 1921". WHO'S WHO & WHO WAS WHO. 2007. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u197784. ISBN 978-0-19-954089-1. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ The Times (London, England), Monday, 25 April 1949; p.7; Issue 51364.
- ↑ "Barrington-Ward, Frederick Temple, (30 Aug. 1880–22 Feb. 1938), KC 1919; Barrister-at-law, Lincoln's Inn and Middle Temple; Bencher of Lincoln's Inn, 1923; Metropolitan Police Magistrate since 1930; JP Sussex". WHO'S WHO & WHO WAS WHO. 2007. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u205735. ISBN 978-0-19-954089-1. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Johnston, George Douglas, (16 Jan. 1886–20 June 1971), Barrister-at-Law". WHO'S WHO & WHO WAS WHO. 2007. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u156181. ISBN 978-0-19-954089-1. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Cyril Pearce Harvey Q.C." Brasenose College Library & Archives. 29 November 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Harvey, Cyril Pearce, (14 Oct. 1900–3 Jan. 1968), QC 1950". WHO'S WHO & WHO WAS WHO. 2007. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u57144. ISBN 978-0-19-954089-1. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Edmund-Davies, Baron". Who's Who. Retrieved 2 November 2016.
- ↑ "The Honourable Ronald Martland". Supreme Court of Canada. 1 January 2001. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "J. G. Starke, QC". Australian Year Book of International Law. 2006. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Brown, Alan Brock, (30 April 1911–25 Dec. 1980), Emeritus Fellow, Worcester College, Oxford; Hon. Bencher, Inner Temple, since 1972". WHO'S WHO & WHO WAS WHO. 2007. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u152698. ISBN 978-0-19-954089-1. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ The Times (London, England), Thursday, 25 June 1992; p.17; Issue 64368.
- ↑ Goodhart, William (26 October 2008). "Norman Marsh". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- 1 2 Kentridge, Sydney (19 April 1994). "Obituary: Rex Welsh". The Independent. Archived from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Machin, (Edward) Anthony, (28 June 1925–18 Dec. 2017), QC 1973; a Recorder of the Crown Court, 1976–90". WHO'S WHO & WHO WAS WHO. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u25737. ISBN 978-0-19-954089-1. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Sir Ian Brownlie". The Daily Telegraph. 17 January 2010. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Libbert, His Honour Judge Libbert Laurence Joseph, (22 June 1933–6 June 1985), QC 1980; a Circuit Judge, since 1985". WHO'S WHO & WHO WAS WHO. 2007. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u166373. ISBN 978-0-19-954089-1. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- 1 2 "Vinerian Scholars Gather in Oxford". Oxford Law Faculty. 13 November 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Colin Tapper: Emeritus Professor". University of Oxford Faculty of Law. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Background to the Inquiry". Bloody Sunday Trust. Archived from the original on 3 February 2009. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Robert Roy Stuart". University of Alberta Faculty of Law. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "John Eekelaar: Emeritus Fellow of Pembroke College". University of Oxford Faculty of Law. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Australian Judges and Law at Oxford" (PDF). Oxford Law News (17): 4. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 February 2014.
- ↑ "Australia Day Honours". Haileybury. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Paul Craig: Professor of English Law". University of Oxford Faculty of Law. 16 July 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ Dingle, Lesley; Bates, Daniel. "Professor Peter Cane". University of Cambridge Squire Law Library. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Professor Peter Cane". Durham University Institute of Advanced Study. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "The Honourable Justice Patrick A. Keane". Supreme Court Library Queensland. Archived from the original on 21 April 2013.
- ↑ "Stephen Moriarty QC, UK Bar | Chambers Rankings". chambers.com. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Oxford Law visits Melbourne and Sydney". Oxford Law News. 25 July 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
- ↑ "Mary Stokes Profile" (PDF). Erskine Chambers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 February 2014.
- ↑ "Biography of Edwin Cameron". African Success.org. 2008. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
- ↑ "Barrister Profile: Norman J. O'Bryan". Victorian Bar. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Braham, Edward Charles, (born 17 July 1961), Partner, since 1995, and Senior Partner, since 2016, Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer LLP (formerly Freshfields) (Global Corporate Practice Group Leader, 2009–14)". WHO'S WHO & WHO WAS WHO. 2008. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u247415. ISBN 978-0-19-954088-4. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Craig Orr QC | One Essex Court | OEC". www.oeclaw.co.uk. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Craig Orr LinkedIn Profile". LinkedIn. 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "John Gardner at Home". University of Oxford. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Paul Nicholls QC" (PDF). 11 King's Bench Walk. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Andrew J. Palmer". Foley's Barrister List. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Andrew S. Bell". Eleven Wentworth. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Andrew Dickinson". Oxford Law Faculty. 16 July 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Jeremy Kirk". Eleven Wentworth. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Ann Buckingham". Latham & Watkins LLP. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Henry Forbes Smith". One Essex Court. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Angus Johnston: Professor of Law". University of Oxford Faculty of Law. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Bachelor of Civil Law/Magister Juris". Oxford University Gazette. University of Oxford. 21 September 2000. Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Ong Tze En, Burton". National University of Singapore Faculty of Law. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "David Murray". Fountain Court Chambers. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Ben Allgrove". LinkedIn. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "University news". The Times. 2001. ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Andrew Scott". Blackstone Chambers. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Marc Brown" (PDF). St Philips Chambers. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Paul Adams". Serle Court. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Imran S. Afzal". Gray's Inn Tax Chambers. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014.
- ↑ "Natasha Bennett". Fountain Court Chambers. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Michael Bolding". Brick Court Chambers. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Dr Frederick Wilmot-Smith". All Souls College University of Oxford. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ Chauhan, Neha. "NLSIU Rhodes scholar V Niranjan tops 'exhilarating' Oxford postgrad, to practise at bar". Legally India.com. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ Sherington, Greg (31 July 2012). "Alumna wins prestigious Oxford Scholarship". The University of Sydney. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "Ajay Ratan". Blackstone Chambers. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ↑ "James Ruddell". One Essex Court Chambers. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
- ↑ "Owen Lloyd". Essex Court Chambers. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
- ↑ "Marlena Valles". Oxford Law Faculty. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- ↑ "BCL MJur examiners' report 2017" (PDF). Retrieved 28 August 2018.
- ↑ "QUT Law Alumni awarded Vinerian Scholarship". QUT Law. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
- 1 2 "BCL/MJur Prizes 2019" (PDF). Oxford Law. 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Chen Chen". Oxford Law Faculty. 1 February 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Luca Moretti profile". LinkedIn. 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "Two Sydney Law School alumni top at Oxford". The University of Sydney. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
- ↑ "Oxford Law Faculty". Oxford Law Faculty. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
- ↑ "Oxford Law Faculty" (PDF).
- ↑ "BCL/MJUR Prizes 2023".
- ↑ "Chloe Carpenter". Fountain Court. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Oxford University Gazette 21 September 2000". University of Oxford. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
- ↑ "Zachary Douglas". Matrix Chambers. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Aaron Baker". Durham University. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Mario Mendez". Queen Mary University of London. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "BCL and M Jur Examiners' Report 2003" (PDF). University of Oxford Faculty of Law. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Rupert Allen". Fountain Court. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Matthias Kuscher". De Brauw Blackstone Westbroek. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Henry Philips". South Square. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Full list of student prizes 2009-10". University of Oxford Faculty of Law. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Alice Irving". Doughty Street Chambers. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Colm O'Grady". LinkedIn. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Jack Williams". Monckton Chambers. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Anthony Wicks". LinkedIn. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Daniel Fletcher". One Essex Court. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Keith Chan". Temple Chambers. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Sinziana Hennig". Stikeman Elliott. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Cyrus Chua". Des Voeux Chambers. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- 1 2 "'BCL/MJUR Prizes 2019'" (PDF). University of Oxford Faculty of Law. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- 1 2 "BCL/MJUR Prizes 2020" (PDF). University of Oxford Faculty of Law. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ↑ "Fountain Court Chambers".
- ↑ "BCL/MJUR Prizes 2021" (PDF).
- ↑ "BCL/MJUR Prizes 2023".
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.