Virunga National Park
French: Parc National des Virunga
Map showing the location of Virunga National Park
Map showing the location of Virunga National Park
LocationDemocratic Republic of the Congo
Nearest cityGoma
Coordinates0°55′S 29°10′E / 0.917°S 29.167°E / -0.917; 29.167
Area7,768.93 km2 (2,999.60 sq mi)[1]
EstablishedApril 1925 (1925-04)
Governing bodyInstitut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature[2]
Websitevirunga.org
CriteriaNatural: (vii), (viii), (x)
Reference63
Inscription1979 (3rd Session)
Endangered1994–...
Official nameParc National des Virunga
Designated18 January 1996
Reference no.787[3]

Virunga National Park is a national park in the Albertine Rift Valley in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It was created in 1925. In elevation, it ranges from 680 m (2,230 ft) in the Semliki River valley to 5,109 m (16,762 ft) in the Rwenzori Mountains. From north to south it extends approximately 300 km (190 mi), largely along the international borders with Uganda and Rwanda in the east.[2] It covers an area of 8,090 km2 (3,120 sq mi).

Two active volcanoes are located in the park, Mount Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira.[4] They have significantly shaped the national park's diverse habitats and wildlife. More than 3,000 faunal and floral species have been recorded, of which more than 300 are endemic to the Albertine Rift including eastern gorilla (Gorilla beringei) and golden monkey (Cercopithecus kandti).[5]

In 1979, the National Park was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site because of its rich diversity of habitats, exceptional biodiversity and endemism, and its protection of rare mountain gorilla habitat.[6] It has been listed in the List of World Heritage in Danger since 1994 because of civil unrest and the increase of human presence in the region.[7]

There have been several deadly attacks in the park by rebel groups, and several park rangers have been killed.[8][9]

Politics

There have been plans to drill for oil in the Congo Basin since the 2000s. Preventing these plans the park gained further protection by an agreement sealed between DRCs president Felix Tshisekedi and Boris Johnson at the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Glasgow.[10][11] To improve the country's economic situation the government undermined that very protection by auctioning oil exploration blocks inside the park by the end of July 2022. Tullow Oil Plc, TotalEnergies, ENI and China National Offshore Oil Corporation Ltd (CNOOC) were interested in acquiring drilling permissions.[12] Local and global groups, such as Greenpeace, are warning about the social and ecological impact of devastating the forest for oil production. Campaigners trying to create public awareness are threatened and intimidated on social media.[13]

History

In the early 1920s, several proponents of the European conservation movement championed the idea of creating a protected area in northeastern Belgian Congo, among them Victor van Straelen, Jean Massart and Jean-Marie Derscheid. When Albert National Park was established in April 1925 as the Congo's first national park, it was conceived as a science-oriented nature reserve with the aim of studying and preserving wildlife and so-called "primitive" hunter-gatherer African Pygmies. In 1926, Derscheid headed the first Belgian mission to map Albert National Park, which encompassed an area of 500 km2 (190 sq mi) around the extinct volcanoes Mount Karisimbi and Mount Mikeno. The protected area was extended in 1929 by Virunga National Park, which encompassed the Virunga Mountains, parts of the Rutshuru Territory, and the plains south of Lake Edward. Its initial size of 2,920.98 km2 (1,127.80 sq mi) was enlarged step by step in subsequent years.[14][15][16][17] Indigenous people lost their traditional land rights in this process, and were evicted from the protected area.[16][18] Between the late 1930s and 1955, an estimated 85,000 Rwandophone people were moved to nearby Masisi in North Kivu.[19]

In 1934, the Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge was founded as the governing body for national parks in the Belgian Congo.[14] Between the early 1930s and 1961, several expeditions to Albert National Park were carried out by Belgian scientists, the second headed by Gaston-François de Witte. They studied and collected zoological specimens of wildlife for the Musée Royal d'Histoire Naturelle de Belgique;[20][21] explored the ethnic groups in this area;[22] studied volcanic activity,[23] and fossils.[24]

In the late 1950s, Tutsi herders and their cattle entered the park, destroying natural habitat up to an altitude of 3,000 m (9,800 ft), which was thought to threaten the park's gorillas.[25]

Land laws were reformed in the 1960s after Belgian Congo became independent as the Republic of the Congo, and the land declared property of the state, much to the disadvantage of local people. Illegal hunting inside protected areas increased.[18] In 1969, the two parks were merged under the name Virunga National Park, which was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.[2]

In 1996, the national park was listed as a Ramsar site of international importance.[2]

In 2011, the British company Soco International was granted a concession for extracting crude oil in the surroundings of and in large parts of the national park. Government officials supported exploration activities by Soco International mission members, whereas park management opposed. In the course of increasing tensions, the park's chief warden, Emmanuel de Mérode, was assailed in April 2014.[26] Following international protests, the company stopped exploring activities and consented to refrain from starting similar operations in the vicinity of World Heritage sites.[27][28][29][30]

By 2016, four hydropower dams were constructed that provide electricity to small businesses and benefit more than 200,000 rural people.[31]

Armed conflict

Since the early 1990s, the protected area was impacted by political turmoil in the African Great Lakes region. Following the Rwandan genocide, thousands of refugees fled to the Kivu region, and the presence of military increased. The First and Second Congo Wars further destabilised the region. Anti-poaching patrols inside the park were obstructed, and park personnel and wildlife were killed.[7] About 850,000 refugees lived around the national park in 1994. Up to 40,000 people entered the park daily in search of firewood and food, and deforested huge areas.[32] In 1994, Virunga National Park was entered into the List of World Heritage in Danger.[7]

After the Second Congo War was over, confrontations between park personnel and rebel groups continued; 80 park staff were killed between 1996 and 2003.[32] Several armed rebel groups operate in the park, including Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda and National Congress for the Defence of the People (FDLR).[2] Latter controlled the Mikeno sector of Virunga National Park between December 2006 and January 2009.[33]

In 2005, the European Commission (EC) recommended a public-private partnership between the country's government and the British non-governmental organisation African Conservation Fund. The latter organisation is responsible for park management since 2010; about 80% of management costs are subsidised by the EC. Park protection efforts were militarised in the following years to deter armed rebel groups and poachers from operating inside the park.[26] Park personnel are given paramilitary training and high-quality weaponry, and operate together with the military and state security services.[34]

These tactics, criticised as "militarization of conservation", has been blamed for further violence and dispossession faced by local indigenous people. Communities, such as the Mbuti, which previously relied on the lands included in the park for food and shelter have been forced out, or risk being arrested or killed by armed park rangers.[35]

Increasing militarisation of nature conservation has been accused of fuelling armed mobilisation of militias. The inhabitants inside the national park, whether native or refugees, rely on farming, hunting, fishing, logging and producing charcoal for their livelihoods, all prohibited activities. The local community has no where else to turn for security, and relies on the protection of armed groups, for which fees are levied off the prohibited activities. According to a 2010 report by the United Nations Security Council, 80% of the charcoal consumed by the city of Goma is sourced from the park, representing an annual value of US$28–30 million. Both state security services and such groups also resort to armed robberies and kidnapping for income.[34]

Efforts at nature conservation have had contradictory effects, for example when farms were destroyed within Kibirizi, and soldiers and park guards were sent in to patrol, people migrated even further within the park to land controlled by the FDLR, where they could rent small plots of land. Clashes occurred in 2015 when a local Mai-Mai group in Binza (north Bwisha) attempted to take back control of region, with the objective of reinstalling fishing activities and allowing the population to return, killing a park guard and 11-15 soldiers.[34]

Five rangers were killed in August 2017 near Lake Edward in a militia attack. Five rangers and a driver were killed in April 2018.[36] Since beginning of the armed conflict, armed groups killed 175 park rangers until April 2018.[37] In May 2018, a ranger was killed when defending two tourists who were kidnapped.[8] They were subsequently released unharmed. As a consequence, the park remained closed to visitors from June 2018[38] until February 2019.[39]

In April 2020 at least 12 park rangers were killed by militia men attacking a civilian convoy.[40] Again in January 2021, armed men killed at least six rangers and wounded several others in an ambush in the national park.[41][42]

On 22 February 2021, Italy's ambassador to the DRC who was travelling with the World Food Programme about 15km north of Goma, Luca Attanasio, as well as Italian military police officer Vittorio Iacovacci and Congolese driver Moustapha Milambo, were killed in the gunfire when a militia that had kidnapped their convoy, and had brought them into the park, was met by park rangers who managed to free four people.[43]

Geography

Rwenzori Mountains
Hills around Lake Edward
Landscapes in Virunga National Park

Virunga National Park is located in the Congo − Nile watershed area. Its northern sector encompasses part of the Semliki River basin, as well as savanna and montane forest of the Albertine Rift.[44] In altitude, this sector ranges from 680 m (2,230 ft) in the Puemba River valley to the highest peak of Mount Stanley at 5,109 m (16,762 ft) within 30 km (19 mi). The national park's central sector encompasses about two thirds of Lake Edward up to the international border with Uganda in the east. A narrow corridor of 3–5 km (1.9–3.1 mi) width along the lake's western bank connects the northern and southern sectors of the national park. The southern sector stretches to the shores of Lake Kivu and encompasses Nyamulagira, Nyiragongo and Mikeno volcanoes with montane forests on their slopes.[2]

The northern sector of Virunga National Park is contiguous with Uganda's Semuliki park, the Rwenzori Mountains National Park, and the central sector with Queen Elizabeth National Park. The southern sector borders Rwanda's Volcanoes National Park.[45]

Climate

The climate in the Albertine Rift is influenced by the movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation. March to mid May and September to November are the main rainy seasons.[46] Mean monthly rainfall in the savanna around Lake Edward is 30–40 mm (1.2–1.6 in); this is the driest part of the landscape. The northern sector receives a monthly mean precipitation of up to 220 mm (8.7 in), and the southern sector of up to 160 mm (6.3 in).[45] Average temperatures in lower altitudes vary from 23–28 °C (73–82 °F), and in higher altitudes from 16–24 °C (61–75 °F), rarely dropping below 14 °C (57 °F).[15]

Flora

Riverine forest
Primary tropical forest
Habitats in Virunga National Park

Virunga National Park's flora encompasses 2,077 plant species, including 264 tree species and 230 plants that are endemic to the Albertine Rift.[5] The plains of Virunga National Park are dominated by wetlands and grasslands with papyrus sedge (Cyperus papyrus), jointed flatsedge (C. articulatus), common reed (Phragmites mauritanica), sacaton grasses (Sporobolus consimilis), ambatch (Aeschynomene elaphroxylon), conkerberry (Carissa spinarum), paperbark thorn (Vachellia sieberiana) and kowai fruit (Coccinia grandis).[3][47] Remains of dicots such as African caper (Capparis tomentosa), Maerua species, wild cucurbits, and nightshades were found in dung balls of African elephants (Loxodonta) that play a significant role for seed dispersal in the grasslands.[48]

The montane forest between 1,800 and 2,800 m (5,900 and 9,200 ft) in the southern sector is dominated by Ficalhoa laurifolia and Podocarpus milanjianus with up to 25 m (82 ft) high trees. African alpine bamboo (Yushania alpina) grows at altitudes of 2,300–2,600 m (7,500–8,500 ft). The vegetation above 2,600 m (8,500 ft) is subalpine with foremost African redwood (Hagenia abyssinica) growing up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft). Tree heath (Erica arborea), heather and mosses cover humid slopes up to 3,700 m (12,100 ft) elevation. Senecio and Lobelia species grow on vast clearings and attain heights of up to 8 m (26 ft).[15]

Fauna

Mammals photographed in Virunga National Park
Mountain gorilla
African bush elephant and African buffaloes
Ugandan kob
Lions

Virunga National Park's faunal species include 196 mammals, 706 bird species, 109 reptiles and 65 amphibians as of 2012.[5]

Mammals

Primates present in the national park include mountain gorilla (G. b. beringei), common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), golden monkey, red-tailed monkey (Cercopithecus ascanius), Dent's mona monkey (C. denti), blue monkey (C. mitis), Hamlyn's monkey (C. hamlyni), De Brazza's monkey (C. neglectus), Central African red colobus (Procolobus foai), mantled guereza (Colobus guereza), olive baboon (Papio anubis) and grey-cheeked mangabey (Lophocebus albigena).[5][21][49][50]

African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) and African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) inhabit the national park's central sector.[47] Okapi (Okapia johnstoni), blue duiker (Philantomba monticola), bay duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis), Weyns's duiker (C. weynsi), yellow-backed duiker (C. silvicultor), water chevrotain (Hyemoschus aquaticus), red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus), aardvark (Orycteropus afer) and bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) were recorded in the northern sector in 2008.[50] Harnessed bushbuck (T. scriptus) and giant forest hog (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni) are present in the southern sector.[49] All of the topi (Damaliscus lunatus jimela) cluster to the south of Lake Edward in the Ishasha Flats region, and regularly cross the border into Uganda.[51][52][53] Other ungulates present include Ugandan kob (Kobus kob thomasi), waterbuck (K. ellipsiprymnus), and common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus).[45][54]

Virunga National Park together with the adjacent Queen Elizabeth National Park forms a "Lion Conservation Unit".[55] The area is considered a potential lion (Panthera leo) stronghold, if poaching is curbed and prey species recover.[54] In the national park's northern sector, African leopard (P. pardus pardus), marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus), giant pangolin (Smutsia gigantea), tree pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis), crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata), Lord Derby's scaly-tailed squirrel (Anomalurus derbianus), Boehm's bush squirrel (Paraxerus boehmi), western tree hyrax (Dendrohyrax dorsalis), Emin's pouched rat (Cricetomys emini) and checkered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei) were recorded during surveys in 2008.[50]

Reptiles

The Semliki River provides habitat for Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). Several were observed at the northern shore of Lake Edwards in 1988 for the first time.[56]

Birds

Of the Albertine Rift's endemic birds, Rwenzori turaco, Rwenzori batis, Archer's ground robin, red-throated alethe, Kivu ground thrush, collared apalis, mountain masked apalis, dusky crimson-wing, Shelley's crimsonwing, red-faced woodland warbler, stripe-breasted tit, blue-headed sunbird, regal sunbird, Rwenzori double-collared sunbird, handsome spurfowl and strange weaver were recorded in Virunga National Park's southern sector during surveys in 2004. Non-endemic birds recorded include Wahlberg's eagle, African goshawk, African hobby, harrier hawk, common buzzard, mountain buzzard, hadeda ibis, grey-crowned crane, black-and-white-casqued hornbill, black-billed turaco, African olive pigeon, tambourine dove, blue-spotted wood dove, red-eyed dove, brown-necked parrot, red-chested cuckoo, olive long-tailed cuckoo, barred long-tailed cuckoo, Klaas's cuckoo, Diederik cuckoo, blue-headed coucal, Narina trogon, white-headed wood hoopoe, white-necked raven, white-tailed crested flycatcher, African paradise flycatcher, white-eyed slaty flycatcher, African dusky flycatcher, white-tailed blue flycatcher, mountain oriole, speckled mousebird, cinnamon-chested bee-eater, grey-throated barbet, yellow-billed barbet, western tinkerbird, yellow-rumped tinkerbird, cardinal woodpecker, olive woodpecker, black saw-wing, Angola swallow, Alpine swift, mountain greenbul, yellow-whiskered greenbul, common bulbul, white-starred robin, Archer's ground robin, white-browed robin-chat, African stonechat, rufous thrush, African thrush, olive thrush, grassland pipit, cinnamon bracken warbler, black-faced rufous warbler, mountain yellow warbler, brown woodland warbler, green sandpiper, Chubb's cisticola, banded prinia, chestnut-throated apalis, grey-backed camaroptera, white-browed crombec, black-throated wattle-eye, chinspot batis, mountain illadopsis, grey-chested illadopsis, olive sunbird, bronze sunbird, malachite sunbird, collared sunbird, variable sunbird, yellow white-eye, Mackinnon's shrike, Doherty's bushshrike, Lühder's bushshrike, northern puffback, mountain sooty boubou, tropical boubou, narrow-tailed starling, Sharpe's starling, baglafecht weaver, black bishop, grey-headed nigrita, common waxbill, black-headed waxbill, bronze mannikin, black and white mannikin, pin-tailed whydah, African citril, streaky seedeater and thick-billed seedeater.[57]

Ethnic groups

Children around a health care centre
Settlements at the edge of the Nyiragongo crater
Ethnic groups in and around Virunga National Park

Ethnic groups living in and around Virunga National Park include:

Media coverage

The documentary Virunga documents the work of Virunga National Park rangers and the activities of British oil company Soco International within the park.[61][62] Ndakasi, a gorilla from the park, was featured in a few television series and movies, including the Netflix documentary.[63]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 World Database on Protected Areas (2018). "Virunga National Park". Protected Planet, United Nations Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Crawford, A. & Bernstein, J. (2008). MEAs, Conservation and Conflict – A case study of Virunga National Park, DRC. Geneva: International Institute for Sustainable Development.
  3. 1 2 Secrétariat Général à l'Environnement et Conservation de la Nature (1994). "Parc national des Virunga". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.
  4. ↑ Tedesco, D. (2002). "1995 Nyiragongo and Nyamulagira activity in the Virunga National Park: A volcanic crisis". Acta Vulcanologica. 14 (1/2): 149–155.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Plumptre, A. J.; Davenport, T. R.; Behangana, M.; Kityo, R.; Eilu, G.; Ssegawa, P.; Ewango, C.; Meirte, D.; Kahindo, C.; Herremans, M. & Peterhans, J. K. (2007). "The biodiversity of the Albertine Rift". Biological Conservation. 134 (2): 178–194. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2006.08.021.
  6. ↑ "Virunga National Park". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.
  7. 1 2 3 Debonnet, G. & Hillman-Smith, K. (2004). "Supporting protected areas in a time of political turmoil: the case of World Heritage Sites in the Democratic Republic of Congo". Parks. 14 (1): 9–16.
  8. 1 2 Actman, J. (2018). "Virunga National Park Sees Its Worst Violence in a Decade, Director Says". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on May 18, 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
  9. ↑ "Twelve rangers killed in latest Virunga Park incident". Mongabay Environmental News. 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
  10. ↑ "COP26: Landmark $500 million agreement launched to protect the DR Congo's forest". Africa Renewal. 2021-11-10. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  11. ↑ ""DRC To Auction Oil And Gas Permits In Endangered Gorilla Habitat" | SEJ". www.sej.org. 2022-07-25. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  12. ↑ "Oil and gas exploration Virunga National Park". Banktrack. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  13. ↑ "DRC's oil blocks auction: Civil society statement on threats and intimidation of environmental defenders in DR Congo". Greenpeace Africa. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  14. 1 2 Harroy, J.P. (1993). "Contribution à l'histoire jusque 1934 de la création de l'Institut des parcs nationaux du Congo belge". Civilisations. Revue internationale d'anthropologie et de sciences humaines. 41 (41): 427–442. doi:10.4000/civilisations.1732.
  15. 1 2 3 Bashonga, M. G. (2012). Etude socio-économique et culturelle, attitude et perceptions des communautés Twa pygmées autour du secteur Mikeno du Parc National des Virunga. Goma: Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 De Bont, R. (2015). ""Primitives" and Protected Areas: International Conservation and the "Naturalization" of Indigenous People, ca. 1910-1975". Journal of the History of Ideas. 76 (2): 215–236. doi:10.1353/jhi.2015.0014. PMID 25937035. S2CID 34459737.
  17. ↑ De Bont, R. (2017). "A World Laboratory: Framing the Albert National Park". Environmental History. 22 (3): 404–432. doi:10.1093/envhis/emx020.
  18. 1 2 Inogwabini, B.I. (2014). "Conserving biodiversity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: a brief history, current trends and insights for the future". Parks. 20 (2): 101−110. doi:10.2305/iucn.ch.2014.parks-20-2.bi.en.
  19. ↑ Stephen J. (2007). "Of "Doubtful Nationality": Political Manipulation of Citizenship in the D. R. Congo". Citizenship Studies. 11 (5): 481–500. doi:10.1080/13621020701605792. S2CID 144902646.
  20. ↑ Schouteden, H. (1938). Exploration du Parc National Albert: Oiseaux (PDF). Bruxelles: Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge.
  21. 1 2 Frechkop, S. (1943). Exploration du Parc National Albert: Mammifères (PDF). Bruxelles: Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge.
  22. 1 2 Schumacher, P. (1943). Die Kivu-Pygmäen und ihre soziale Umwelt im Albert-National Park (PDF). Bruxelles: Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge.
  23. ↑ Verhoogen, J. (1948). Les éruptions 1938-1940 du volcan Nyamuragira (PDF). Bruxelles: Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge.
  24. ↑ de Heinzelin de Braucourt, J. (1961). Le paléolithique aux abords d'Ishango (PDF). Bruxelles: Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge.
  25. ↑ Dart, R.A. (1960). "The urgency of international intervention for the preservation of the mountain gorilla". South African Journal of Science. 56 (4): 85–87.
  26. 1 2 Marijnen, E. (2018). "Public Authority and Conservation in Areas of Armed Conflict: Virunga National Park as a "State within a State" in Eastern Congo". Development and Change. 49 (3): 790–814. doi:10.1111/dech.12380.
  27. ↑ Nkongolo, J.K. (2015). "International solidarity and permanent sovereignty over natural resources: antagonism or peaceful coexistence? The case of oil in the Virunga National Park". African Journal of Democracy and Governance. 2 (3–4): 77–98.
  28. ↑ Verheyen, E. (2016). "Oil extraction imperils Africa's Great Lakes". Science. 354 (6312): 561–562. Bibcode:2016Sci...354..561V. doi:10.1126/science.aal1722. hdl:1942/23763. PMID 27811261. S2CID 13338009.
  29. ↑ Hochleithner, S. (2017). "Beyond Contesting Limits: Land, Access, and Resistance at the Virunga National Park". Conservation and Society. 15 (1): 100–110. doi:10.4103/0972-4923.201397.
  30. ↑ Kümpel, N.F.; Hatchwell, M.; Clausen, A.; Some, L.; Gibbons, O. & Field, A. (2018). "Sustainable development at natural World Heritage sites in Africa". In Moukala, E. & Odiaua, I. (eds.). World Heritage for Sustainable Development in Africa. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. pp. 51–61.
  31. ↑ Odiaua, I. & Moukala, E. (2018). "Engaging World Heritage to drive sustainable development in Africa: next steps". In Moukala, E. & Odiaua, I. (eds.). World Heritage for Sustainable Development in Africa. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. pp. 251–277.
  32. 1 2 McNeely, J.A. (2003). "Conserving forest biodiversity in times of violent conflict". Oryx. 37 (2): 142–152. doi:10.1017/S0030605303000334.
  33. ↑ Refisch, J. & Jenson, J. (2016). "Transboundary collaboration in the Greater Virunga Landscape: From gorilla conservation to conflict-sensitive transboundary landscape management". In Bruch, C.; Muffett, C. & Nichols, S.S. (eds.). Governance, Natural Resources, and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding. Oxon, New York: Routledge. pp. 825–841. ISBN 978-1-136-27207-3.
  34. 1 2 3 Verweijen, J. & Marijnen, E. (2016). "The counterinsurgency/conservation nexus: guerrilla livelihoods and the dynamics of conflict and violence in the Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo" (PDF). The Journal of Peasant Studies. 45 (2): 300–320. doi:10.1080/03066150.2016.1203307. S2CID 85555718.
  35. ↑ Moloo, Zahra (14 September 2014). "Militarised Conservation Threatens DRC's Indigenous People – Part 1". Inter Press Service. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
  36. ↑ Burke, J. (2018). "Six Virunga park rangers killed in DRC wildlife sanctuary". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 April 2018.
  37. ↑ "In memoriam: deadliest attack on Virunga staff in Park's recent history brings total ranger deaths to 175". Virunga. 2018. Retrieved 2018-08-17.
  38. ↑ "Virunga Park Closure Statement" (PDF). 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-06-15. Retrieved 2018-06-26.
  39. ↑ Prentice, A. (2019). "Congo's Virunga park reopens eight months after deadly ambush". Reuters. Retrieved 2019-04-26.
  40. ↑ "Rangers killed in "deadliest" DR Congo park attack". BBC News. 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
  41. ↑ "Six park rangers killed in DR Congo's Virunga gorilla reserve". France 24. 2021. Retrieved 2021-01-13.
  42. ↑ "Six Virunga park rangers killed in eastern Congo ambush". CNN. 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
  43. ↑ "Italian ambassador to DR Congo killed in UN convoy attack". BBC News. 2021. Retrieved 2021-02-23.
  44. ↑ Mubalama, L. & Mushenzi, N. (2004). "Monitoring law enforcement and illegal activities in the northern sector of the Parc National des Virunga, Democratic Republic of Congo". Pachyderm (36): 16–29.
  45. 1 2 3 Plumptre, A. J.; Pomeroy, D.; Stabach, J.; Laporte, N.; Driciru, M.; Nangendo, G.; Wanyama, F. & Rwetsiba, A. (2012). "The effects of environmental and anthropogenic changes on the savannas of the Queen Elizabeth and Virunga National parks". In Plumptre, A. J. (ed.). Long Term changes in Africa's Rift Valley: impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems. New York: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 88–105.
  46. ↑ Seimon, A. & Phillipps, G. P. (2012). "Regional Climatology of the Albertine Rift". In Plumptre, A. J. (ed.). Long Term changes in Africa's Rift Valley: impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems. New York: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 18–38.
  47. 1 2 Mubalama, L. (2000). "Population and Distribution of Elephants (Loxodonta africana africana) in the Central Sector of the Virunga National Park, Eastern DRC". Pachyderm. 28: 44–55.
  48. ↑ Brahmachary, R.L. (1980). "On the germination of seeds in the dung balls of the African elephant in the Virunga National Park" (PDF). Revue d'Écologie (La Terre et la Vie). 34 (1): 139–142. doi:10.3406/revec.1980.4059. S2CID 85620811.
  49. 1 2 Lanjouw, A. (2002). "Behavioural adaptations to water scarcity in Tongo chimpanzees". In Boesch, C.; Hohmann, G.; Marchant, L. (eds.). Behavioural diversity in Chimpanzees and Bonobos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–60. ISBN 0-521-00613-9.
  50. 1 2 3 Nixon, S. C. & Lusenge, T. (2008). Conservation status of Okapi in Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo. ZSL Conservation Report No. 9 (PDF). London: The Zoological Society of London.
  51. ↑ Plumptre, A.; Kujirakwinja, D.; Moyer, D.; Driciru, M.; Rwetsiba, A. (2010). Greater Virunga Landscape Large Mammal Surveys, 2010 (Report). Wildlife Conservation Society. pp. 5, 6. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  52. ↑ Uganda Wildlife Authority: Planning Unit (2012). Buhanga, Edgar; Namara, Justine (eds.). Queen Elizabeth National Park, Kyambura Wildlife Reserve, Kigezi Wildlife Reserve-General Management Plan (2011 - 2021) (Report). Uganda Wildlife Authority. p. 2. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  53. 1 2 Wanyama, F.; Balole, E.; Elkan, P.; Mendiguetti, S.; S. Ayebare; F. Kisame; P.Shamavu; R. Kato; D. Okiring; S. Loware; J. Wathaut; Tumonakiese, B.; Mashagiro, D.; Barendse, T.; Plumptre, A.J. (2014). Aerial surveys of the Greater Virunga Landscape - Technical Report 2014 (Report). Wildlife Conservation Society. pp. 5, 11. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  54. 1 2 Treves, A.; Plumptre, A. J.; Hunter, L. T. B. & Ziwa, J. (2009). "Identifying a potential lion Panthera leo stronghold in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, and Parc National des Virunga, Democratic Republic of Congo". Oryx. 43 (1): 60–66. doi:10.1017/S003060530700124X.
  55. ↑ IUCN Cat Specialist Group (2006). Conservation Strategy for the Lion Panthera leo in Eastern and Southern Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: IUCN.
  56. ↑ Verschuren, J. & Kitsidikiti, L. (1989). "L'apparition des crocodiles au lac ex-Edouard, Parc National des Virunga, Zaïre" (PDF). Revue d'Écologie (La Terre et la Vie). 44 (4): 367–397. doi:10.3406/revec.1989.5528. S2CID 130849619.
  57. ↑ Owiunji, I.; Nkuutu, D.; Kujirakwinja, D.; Liengola, I.; Plumptre, A.; Nsanzurwimo, A.; Fawcett, K.; Gray, M. & McNeilage, A. (2005). Biological Survey of Virunga Volcanoes (PDF). New York: Wildlife Conservation Society.
  58. ↑ Hart, T.B.; Hart, J.A. (1986). "The ecological basis of hunter-gatherer subsistence in African rain forests: the Mbuti of Eastern Zaire". Human Ecology. 14 (1): 29–55. doi:10.1007/bf00889209. S2CID 154865306.
  59. ↑ Losh, Jack (2 April 2021). "When Nature Conservation Goes Wrong". Foreign Policy Magazine. Kyambura, Uganda. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
  60. ↑ "The Details of the Basongoro of Rwenzori and their Culture in Uganda". Go Visit Kenya. 2014. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
  61. ↑ "Screenings". Virunga (Official Website). Retrieved 20 August 2014.
  62. ↑ Sinha-Roy, Pifa (6 November 2014). "Netflix's "Virunga" uncovers Congo's fight to protect resources". Reuters. Los Angeles. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
  63. ↑ Bella, T. (2021). "Ndakasi, Beloved Mountain Gorilla of Photobomb Fame, dies". Washington Post.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Virunga National Park.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Virunga National Park.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.