Throughout World War II, the Empire of Japan created a number of puppet states that played a noticeable role in the war by collaborating with Imperial Japan. With promises of "Asia for the Asiatics" cooperating in a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, Japan also sponsored or collaborated with parts of nationalist movements in several Asian countries colonised by European empires or the United States.[1] The Japanese recruited volunteers from several occupied regions and also from among Allied prisoners-of-war.[2]

Greater East Asia Conference in Tokyo, 5–6 November 1943. Participants, from left to right:

Japanese colonial empire

Korea

Korean volunteers of the Imperial Japanese Army, January 1943

Taiwan

British Empire and Commonwealth

Burma

The Burma Independence Army enters Rangoon during the Japanese invasion of Burma, early 1942

The Japanese invaded Burma because the British had been supplying China in the Second Sino-Japanese War along the Burma Road.[3][4] Burmese nationalists known as Burma Independence Army hoped for independence.[5][6] They were later transformed into the Burma National Army as the armed forces of the State of Burma. Minority groups were also armed by the Japanese, such as the Arakan Defense Army and the Chin Defense Army.[7]

Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

Hong Kong

Hong Kong was a British crown colony before its occupation by the Japanese. During the Japanese rule, former members of the Hong Kong Police Force, including Indians and Chinese, were recruited into the Kenpeitai police force.[8]

India

Troops of the Imperial Japanese Army and the Indian National Army on the Burma–India border, March 1943

The Indian Legion (Legion Freies Indien, Indische Freiwilligen Infanterie Regiment 950 or Indische Freiwilligen-Legion der Waffen-SS) was created in August 1942, recruiting chiefly from disaffected British Indian Army prisoners of war captured by Axis forces in the North African campaign. Most were supporters of the exiled nationalist and former president of the Indian National Congress Subhas Chandra Bose. The Royal Italian Army formed a similar unit of Indian prisoners of war, the Battaglione Azad Hindoustan. A Japanese-supported puppet state Azad Hind was also established with the Indian National Army as its military force.[9][10]

Malaya

After occupying British Malaya, Japanese occupation authorities reorganized the disbanded British colonial police force and created a new auxiliary police. Later on, a 2,000-men strong Malayan Volunteer Army and a part-time Malayan Volunteer Corps were created. Local residents were also encouraged to join the Imperial Japanese Army as auxiliary Heiho. There was a Railway Protection Corps as well.[11]

Straits Settlements

The British territory of the Straits Settlements (Singapore, Malacca, Penang and Dindings) came under Japanese occupation after the fiasco suffered by Commonwealth forces at the Fall of Singapore. The Straits Settlements Police Force came under the control of the Japanese and all vessels owned by the Marine Police were confiscated.[12]

China

Wang Jingwei with officers of the Collaborationist Chinese Army in the early years of the Second Sino-Japanese War, late 1930s

The Japanese had previously set up several puppet regimes in occupied Chinese territories. The first was Manchukuo in 1932, under former Chinese emperor Puyi,[13] then the East Hebei Autonomous Government in 1935. Similar to Manchukuo in its supposed ethnic identity, Mengjiang (Mengkukuo) was set up in late 1936. Wang Kemin's collaborationist Provisional Government was set up in Beijing in 1937 following the start of full-scale military operations between China and Japan, and another puppet regime, the Reformed Government of the Republic of China, in Nanjing in 1938.

The Wang Jingwei collaborationist government, established in 1940, "consolidated" these regimes, though in reality neither Wang's government nor the constituent governments had any autonomy, although the military of the Wang Jingwei regime was equipped by the Japanese with planes, cannons, tanks, boats, and German-style stahlhelm, which were already widely used by the National Revolutionary Army, the "official" army of the Republic of China.

The military forces of these puppet regimes, known collectively as the Collaborationist Chinese Army, numbered more than a million at their height, with some estimates that the number exceeded 2 million conscriptees. Many collaborationist troops originally served warlords of the National Revolutionary Army who had defected when facing both Communists and Japanese. Although the collaborationist army was very large, its soldiers were very ineffective compared to NRA soldiers, and had low morale because they were considered "Hanjian". Some collaborationist forces saw battlefields during the Second Sino-Japanese War, but most were relegated to behind-the-line duties.

The Wang Jingwei government was disbanded after the Japanese surrendered to Allies in 1945, and Manchukuo and Mengjiang were destroyed in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria.

Inner Mongolia

Manchuria

Dutch East Indies (Indonesia)

Young PETA fighters participating in Japanese military training, c. 1945

Following its swift victory in the Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941–1942, Imperial Japan was welcomed as a liberator by much of the native population of the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia),[14][15] and especially by the Indonesian nationalists who since the early 20th century had begun developing a national consciousness.[16][17] In the wake of the Japanese advance, rebellious Indonesians across the archipelago killed scores of European and pro-Dutch civilians (in particular from the Chinese community)[18] and informed the invaders on the whereabouts of others,[19] 100,000 of whom would be imprisoned in Japanese-run internment camps alongside 80,000 American, British, Dutch, and Australian prisoners of war.[20] Unlike in occupied French Indochina, where Imperial Japan worked alongside the French colonizer, the Japanese supplanted the Dutch administration of the East Indies and elevated native elites willing to work with them to power,[21] fueling Indonesian hopes of future self-rule.[20] Imperial Japan imposed a strict occupation regime on the archipelago, however, as to them the value of the archipelago lay mostly in its ample resources for the war effort (specifically oil, tin, and bauxite) and their initial use for the nationalists only extended to the pacification and organization of the sizeable population of Java.[14]

During the occupation of the Dutch East Indies, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, respectively the inaugural president and vice president of the future Republic of Indonesia, became promoters of the Japanese rōmusha forced labor scheme through the Center of the People's Power (Pusat Tenaga Rakyat; Putera) and mobilized workers for Japanese production and construction projects across Southeast Asia, such as the strategic railways on Sumatra and West Java, and along the Burma–Thailand border.[22] In total, 4 to 10 million Indonesian laborers were recruited[23] and some 270,000 to 500,000 Javanese were sent abroad, of whom 70,000 to 135,000 returned after the war.[14][24] In November 1943, the Japanese flew Sukarno and Hatta to Tokyo to receive the Order of the Rising Sun from Emperor Hirohito for their services.[25] Similarly, Indonesia's second president Suharto and first commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces Sudirman began their military careers in the Japanese-sponsored Defenders of the Homeland (Pembela Tanah Air; PETA), which alongside the auxiliaries of the Heiho (兵補) was to assist the Imperial Japanese military in fighting off the expected Allied return to the East Indies.[26] Hundreds of thousands served in Japanese organizations such as the propaganda institution Keimin Bunka Shidōsho (啓民文化指導所),[27] the youth movement Seinendan (青年団),[28] and the auxiliary police forces of the Keibōdan (警防団).[29]

As its fortunes turned, Imperial Japan became faced with growing resistance to its increasingly repressive occupation and began catering to the Indonesian desire for self-rule. Already in September 1943,[17] the Javanese Central Advisory Council (Chūō Sangiin, 中央参議院) had been created around Sukarno, Hatta, Ki Hajar Dewantara, and Mas Mansur, and expanded to include notables such as Rajiman Wediodiningrat and Ki Bagus Hadikusumo.[30] Sumatran representation under Mohammad Syafei, Abdul Abas, and Teuku Nyak Arif would follow nearly two years later and included established nationalists such as Djamaluddin Adinegoro and Adnan Kapau Gani.[31] In January 1944, the Center of the People's Power was replaced by the less overtly Japanese-controlled Hōkōkai (奉公会; Himpunan Kebaktian Rakjat) in a renewed attempt to increase Javanese labor and produce for the Japanese war effort.[32] A paramilitary youth wing, the Suishintai (推進体; Barisan Pelopor), would be founded in August.[33] In July 1944, Japanese prime minister Hideki Tojo was forced to resign and on 7 September his replacement Kuniaki Koiso made a promise of independence for "the East Indies" di kemudian hari (English: at a later date).[34] In spite of the deteriorating military situation and a disastrous famine on Java,[35] war enthusiasm had returned to the extent that the suicide attack corps Jibakutai (自爆隊; Barisan Berani Mati) could be formed on 8 December 1944.[36]

On 14 February 1945, a PETA battalion under Supriyadi launched a short-lived revolt against the Japanese in Blitar, East Java.[17] Although it was quickly put down and possibly misattributed to nationalist fervor,[37] it factored into the Japanese realization that their window on creating an Indonesian puppet state had closed.[38] Hoping to extend the occupation by redirecting nationalist energy towards harmless political squabbles, the military authority on Java announced the formation of the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (Badan Penyelidik Usaha-usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan; BPUPK) on 1 March 1945.[39] Despite meeting only twice, the plenary sessions of the BPUPK would see the formulation of Pancasila and the Jakarta Charter that would later form the basis of the preamble to the Constitution of Indonesia.[40] On 7 August, the day after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, Japanese field marshal Hisaichi Terauchi approved the establishment of the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia; PPKI) and promised Indonesian independence would be granted on 24 August 1945.[39] As Imperial Japan surrendered to the Allies on 15 August, Sukarno instead proclaimed Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945.[20] In the Indonesian National Revolution that followed, 903 Japanese nationals volunteered for the Indonesian cause, of whom 531 wound up dead or missing.[41]

French Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam)

Japanese propaganda poster exalting Vichy French and Vietnamese collaboration in Indochina, c. 1942

Japanese soldiers primarily used Laos to stage attacks on Nationalist China.[42]

On 22 September 1940, Vichy France and the Empire of Japan signed an agreement allowing the Japanese to station no more than 6,000 troops in French Indochina, with no more than 25,000 troops transiting the colony. Rights were given for three airfields, with all other Japanese forces forbidden to enter Indochina without Vichy's consent. Vichy signed the Joint Defense and Joint Military Cooperation treaty with Japan on 29 July 1941.[43] It granted the Japanese eight airfields, allowed them to have more troops present, and to use the Indochinese financial system, in return for a fragile French autonomy.

The French colonial government had largely stayed in place, as the Vichy government was on reasonably friendly terms with Japan. The Japanese permitted the French to put down nationalist rebellions in 1940.

The Japanese occupation forces kept French Indochina under nominal rule of Vichy France until March 1945, when the French colonial administration was overthrown, and the Japanese supported the establishment of the Empire of Vietnam, Kingdom of Kampuchea and Kingdom of Laos as Japanese puppet states. Vietnamese militia were used to assist the Japanese.[44] In Cambodia, the ex-colonial Cambodian constabulary was allowed to continue its existence, though it was reduced to ineffectuality. A plan to create a Cambodian volunteer force was not realized due to the Japanese surrender.[45] In Laos, the local administration and ex-colonial Garde Indigène (Indigenous Guard, a paramilitary police force) were re-formed by Prince Phetsarath, who replaced its Vietnamese members with Laotians.[42] The Hmong Lo clan supported the Japanese.[42]

Philippines

The Second Philippine Republic (1943–1945) was a puppet state established by Japanese forces after their 1942 invasion of the United States' Commonwealth of the Philippines (1935–1946). The Second Republic relied on the re-formed Bureau of Constabulary[46] and the Makapili militia to police the occupied country and fight the local resistance movement and the Philippine Commonwealth Army. The president of the republic, Jose P. Laurel, had a presidential guard unit recruited from the ranks of the collaborationist government. When the Americans closed in on the Philippines in 1944, the Japanese began to recruit Filipinos, who mostly served in the Imperial Japanese Army and actively fought until Japan's surrender. After the war, members of Makapili and other civilian collaborators were subject to harsh treatment by both the government and civilians, because their actions had led to the capture, torture, and execution of many Filipinos.[47]

Portuguese Empire

East Timor

The Second Portuguese Republic under António de Oliveira Salazar was neutral during World War II, but its colony on Timor (present-day East Timor) was occupied by the Japanese to expel Australian troops.[48] The Japanese used the population for forced labor.[48] Local militiamen were organized into "black columns" to help Japanese forces fight Allies.[49]

Macau

Portuguese Macau became a virtual protectorate of Imperial Japan as its governor Gabriel Maurício Teixeira and local elite Pedro José Lobo attempted to maintain a balance between the demands of the Japanese consul Yasumitsu Fukui and the needs of the Macanese population, which had doubled in number due to the influx of refugees from Mainland China and Hong Kong.[50]

Thailand

This section is an excerpt from Kra Isthmus railway.[edit]

The Kra Isthmus railway was a rail line constructed for Imperial Japan during World War II linking Chumphon to Kra Buri in Thailand.[51] The railroad connected the Bangkok-Singapore Line westward to the west coast of the Kra Isthmus near Victoria Point (Kawthaung).[51][52] Sir Andrew Gilchrist wrote a harrowing account of worker conditions. Malay and Tamil slave laborers were used and material moved from Kelantan. Allied bombing in 1945 ended the 11-month operation of the railroad and the Japanese switched their focus to the Thai-Burma Railway, also referred to as the Death Railway, for the large numbers of prisoners and effectively enslaved workers who died there. They moved equipment, track and personnel from the Kra Isthmus Railway to the Thai-Burma line.[52]

The 90 km line connected with the Southern Line at Chumphon. Work began on the line in June 1943 and was completed in November. Equipment and personnel from Kelantan were used. The line was in operation for 11 months until U.S. bombing ceased operation. The line was then abandoned and scrapped for use on the Thai-Burma Railway. The line connected to Ban Khao Fa Chi on the La-Un River where boats could continue transport to Ranong and on to Victoria Point (Kawthaung).[52]

Foreign volunteers and supporters

See also

References

  1. ↑ Total War: Causes and courses of the Second World War, by Peter Calvocoressi and Guy Wint, Penguin Books, 1972 (1st edition) ISBN 0-14-021422-4, The War in Asia, chapter 9, pp. 683–685.
  2. ↑ The Labour Recruitment of Local Inhabitants as Rōmusha in Japanese-Occupied South East Asia, Takuma Melber. Part of: Special Issue: Conquerors, Employers and Arbiters: States and Shifts in Labour Relations, 1500–2000, International Review of Social History, Volume 61, Special Issue S24: Published online by Cambridge University Press: 1 December 2016.
  3. ↑ Bernstein, Richard (2014). China 1945: Mao's revolution and America's fateful choice (First ed.). New York. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-0-307-59588-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  4. ↑ Seagrave, Gordon S., Burma Surgeon, W. W. Norton & Company, New York, 1943
  5. ↑ Micheal Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000. 2nd Ed. 2002 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6. p. 556
  6. ↑ Werner Gruhl, Imperial Japan's World War Two, 1931–1945 Transaction 2007 ISBN 978-0-7658-0352-8 (Werner Gruhl is former chief of NASA's Cost and Economic Analysis Branch with a lifetime interest in the study of the First and Second World Wars.)
  7. ↑ Callahan, M.P. (2004). Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma. Singapore University Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-9971-69-283-4. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
  8. ↑ Carroll, John Mark. (2007). A concise history of Hong Kong.ISBN 978-0-7425-3422-3. pp. 123–125, 129.
  9. ↑ Dunphy, J.J. (2018). Unsung Heroes of the Dachau Trials: The Investigative Work of the U.S. Army 7708 War Crimes Group, 1945-1947. McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-4766-3337-4. Imperial Japan in 1943 had established a puppet state known as the Provisional Government of Free India
  10. ↑ Fay, Peter W. (1993). The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945. University of Michigan Press. pp. 212–213. ISBN 0-472-08342-2.
  11. ↑ Kratoska, P.H. (1998). The Japanese Occupation of Malaya: A Social and Economic History. Hurst. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-85065-284-7. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
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  48. 1 2 Japan's reluctant decision to occupy Portuguese Timor, 1 January 1942 ‐ 20 February 1942, Henry P. Frei. Australian Historical Studies Volume 27, 1996 - Issue 107, pages 281-302. Published online: 29 Sep 2008, https://doi.org/10.1080/10314619608596014
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