Start of World War I

Putting its Schlieffen plan into action, on August 4, 1914, the German army invaded Belgium a few days after sending an ultimatum to the Belgian government asking it to allow German troops to pass through its borders. King Albert and his government refused to allow neutrality and territorial integrity to be violated.^[5]

In August 1914, Dinant had a population of 7,890.^[6][7] On August 6, 1914, Burgomaster Arthur Defoin ordered the population of Dinant to deposit their weapons and ammunition at the town hall - the same measure had been taken in Bouvignes-sur-Meuse.^{[nb 3][8][9]} The mayor explains:^[10]

"Inhabitants are formally warned that civilians may not engage in any attacks or violence by firearms or other weapons against enemy troops. Such attacks are prohibited by the just gentium and would expose their perpetrators, and perhaps even the town, to the most serious consequences. Dinant, August 6, 1914, A. Defoin".

In the morning of the same day, a company of thirty carabinieri-cyclists^[11] from the 1er régiment de chasseurs à pied arrived in Dinant. In the afternoon, the first German reconnaissance patrol made a quick incursion into town. Two uhlans advance into rue Saint-Jacques, and the Garde Civique opens fire, but does not hit them. A hunter-cyclist discharges his rifle, wounding a German and his horse in the arm. He flees on foot and is quickly caught, while the second falls from his horse and is treated by Dr. Remy. In the evening, the vanguard of the French 5th Army, the 148th régiment d'infanterie, took up position to defend the bridges at Bouvignes-sur-Meuse and Dinant. On August 7, the carabinieri-cyclists were recalled to Namur. Skirmishes broke out between the French and Germans over the following days, and a hussar was killed on August 11. The Germans abandoned their scouting missions and used their air force to assess the troops present.^[12]

German defeat of August 15, 1914

Two cavalry divisions, under the command of Lieutenant-General von Richtoffen, comprised the vanguard of the 3rd German Army. These divisions consisted of the Guards Cavalry Division and the 5th Division and were supported by 4-5 battalions of chasseurs à pied, along with two groups of artillery and machine guns. The infantry component of over 5,000 men was responsible for crossing the Meuse river between Houx (Belgium), Dinant, and Anseremme.^[7]

A 75 mm cannon in action during the French army's major maneuvers of 1913

At 6am on August 15, the Germans began bombing both banks of the Meuse. First of all, they destroyed the civil hospital, which nevertheless bore a huge red cross. The Château de Bouvignes, transformed into a field hospital for wounded French soldiers, suffered the same fate.^[13] The fighting raged on, with the German army taking the citadel overlooking the town and attempting to cross the Meuse. They were on the verge of succeeding when the French Deligny division, finally authorized to intervene, silenced the enemy artillery with its 75 mm guns and helped repel the assault.^[14]

The Germans left Dinant, three thousand of their men dead, wounded, prisoners or missing. When, at the top of the citadel, the people of Dinant saw the French flag replace the German colors that had flown there, they sang La Marseillaise.^[15] In the citadel, the French discover that wounded French soldiers have been brutally killed. A corporal of the 148th was found hanging by his belt from a shrub, his genitals cut off. Over the following week, the enemy troops organized themselves. General Lanrezac and his men moved up the Entre-Sambre-et-Meuse, while von Hausen's troops closed in on the front between Namur and Givet.^[16][17]

The myth of the francs-tireurs

The Garde Civique in 1914 in Herstal

Since the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the myth of "francs-tireurs" has been prominent among German soldiers and their leaders. Manuals on the art of warfare, such as Kriegsgebrauch im Landkriege published in 1902, even encouraged officers and troops to be harsh in their treatment of "francs-tireurs."^[18] This belief significantly influenced the perception and interpretation of events by Saxon troops during August 1914. When patrols did not return or the source of fire couldn't be determined, franc-tireurs were often blamed.^[19][20][21] Officers spread rumors, occasionally out of nothing but a desire to incite aggression and animosity among the troops.^[22][23]

Additionally, the Civic Guard's presence in the invasion's initial stages supports the Germans' view of it as an armed civilian militia. Founded during the Belgian Revolution of 1830, the Civic Guard consists of middle-class citizens whose mission is to protect the territory's integrity. On August 6, the community ordinance disarmed the people of Dinant, but not the Civic Guard, which remained mobilized until the morning of the 15th and was disarmed on the 18th.^[24]

German officers in a property requisitioned for Colonel Beeger, the military commander of Dinant, and his staff

The crushing defeat on August 15, which left 3,000 soldiers wounded, and the playing of the Marseillaise after the town was liberated intensified the animosity of the occupiers towards the local people.^[25] "Eight days later, the enemy avenged themselves cruelly on the residents of Dinant."^[26]

German troops lived with the trauma caused by this defiance from August 21 onwards. Alcohol, which was pillaged from homes, was extensively consumed to maintain morale,^[27][28] leading to a heightened sense of disorder and chaos that prevailed throughout the subsequent week.^[29]

The city of Dinant, located at the bottom of a steep, narrow valley, posed difficulties in ascertaining the origin of gunfire^[30] and locating projectiles that ricocheted off of its rocky terrain.^[31] Furthermore, French troops situated on the elevated terrain of the left bank would fire whenever a firing angle presented itself. As a result of the disorderly fighting and smoke from fires, numerous German soldiers were unintentionally fired upon by their own allies.^[32] These circumstances bolstered the German soldiers' belief that they were being targeted by enemy franc-tireurs.^[33][28] Consequently, the soldiers, whose perception of reality had been distorted to the point of misinterpreting it, believed they had the right to use violence. This impulse, known as "war psychosis" by Arie Nicolaas Jan den Hollander, resulted in their actions.^[34][35]

The day before: "Tomorrow, Dinant all burned and killed!"

On August 21, certain German officers enunciated their intentions unambiguously. A captain informed the parish priest of Lisogne, "Tomorrow, Dinant will be burned and killed! - We have lost too many men!"^[36][37]

On the night of August 21 to 22, the civilian population of Dinant encountered their first skirmishes, as a German reconnaissance patrol, quickly joined by numerous boisterous soldiers, raided Rue Saint-Jacques.^[38] It was a diverse battalion comprising members of the 2nd Battalion of the No. 108 Rifle Regiment and collaborating with the 1st Company of the No. 12 Pioneer Battalion. The cruise descended^{[nb 4]} upon the city from the elevated area of the right bank. It even made it as far as the Meuse. The German forces murdered seven civilians and deployed incendiary explosives to burn down roughly twenty houses, which resulted in the deaths of five people.^[39][40] For the Germans, it was a "reconnaissance in force" operation. Maurice Tschoffen characterized it as "the escapade of a group of drunken soldiers."^[39] According to the war diary of one of the battalions involved, the decision for the raid was made at the brigade level with the intention of taking Dinant. The goal was to "take Dinant [...], drive out the defenders, and destroy the town as much as possible."^[39] After the war, Soldier Rasch described how, upon reaching the bottom of Rue Saint-Jacques one night, they noticed a lit café and threw a hand grenade into it,^{[nb 5]} leading to a fusillade. This action only worsened the panic felt as gunfire seemed to come from all directions, even from residential homes. Rasch's company suffered the loss of eight soldiers, and his captain was severely injured. In the end, this tragic event resulted in the deaths of 19 Germans and injuries to 117 others. However, two factors contributed to the increase in German casualties: the use of torches by German troops made them easy targets for French soldiers, and it is possible that, in a state of panic, German soldiers fired upon their fellow troops. This incident reinforced the idea of francs-tireurs as a myth.^[41]

The initial disturbances caused people to flee from the right bank for their safety. Nonetheless, they had to present a pass issued by the local authority to cross to the left bank. Due to the barricading of Dinant and Bouvignes bridges, some families escaped through tourist barges.^[42] About 2,500 individuals from Dinant managed to secure refuge behind French lines.^[43] However, at noon on the 22nd, the French prohibited such crossings as they would impede troop movements.^[42] The First Corps of the French 5th Army was replaced by the 51st Reserve Infantry Division and the 273rd Infantry Regiment (France). A small group from the British Expeditionary Force was also in the area.^[44] The 51st Reserve Infantry Division was thus confronted with three German army corps on a front that extended over thirty kilometers. At Dinant, the 273rd Infantry Regiment faced the XIIth Army Corps (1st Saxon Corps) of the entire Saxon Army. As a French assault was not feasible, their strategic location allowed them to obstruct the German XII Corps' crossing of the Meuse. Accordingly, in mid-afternoon,^[45] the French detonated the Bouvignes-sur-Meuse bridge, while preserving the Dinant bridge. They entrenched themselves on the left bank and waited for the opposing force, while abandoning their efforts to maintain a presence on the right bank.^[16][42][46]

August 23, 1914: the Ransack of Dinant

On August 23, 1914, the XIIth Army Corps (1st Saxon Corps) entered the town on four separate routes.^[47] To the north, the 32nd Division stormed the sector between Houx and the Faubourg de Leffe. The 178th regiment of the 64th brigade advanced through the Fonds de Leffe. As they passed, the Germans killed all civilians. 13 men are shot at Pré Capelle by 6 men of the 103rd Saxon Regiment, and 71 are murdered in the vicinity of the "paper mill". Paul Zschocke, a non-commissioned officer in the 103rd RI, explained that he had been ordered by the company commander to search for the "francs-tireurs" and "shoot anyone he found there".^[45] Houses were systematically searched, and civilians were either shot or taken to the Prémontrés abbey. At ten o'clock in the morning, the religious, unaware of the fate that was about to befall them, gathered together the 43 men present at the request of the German officers. They were all shot in Place de l'Abbaye.^{[nb 6][45]} As for the monks, the Germans held them to ransom under the pretext of having fired on their troops: Major Fränzel, who spoke French, asked them to raise the sum of 60,000 Belgian francs, which was later reduced, after consultation with his superiors, to 15,000 Belgian francs.^[48][49][50]

That evening, the 108 civilians^[51] who had been hiding in the cellars of the large Leffe fabric factory decided to surrender. The director, Remy Himmer, who was also vice-consul of the Argentine Republic, his relatives and some of his workers were immediately arrested. Women and children were sent to the Prémontrés convent; despite his protests to Lieutenant-Colonel Blegen,^[52] Remy Himmer and 30 men were shot dead in the Place de l'Abbaye, still littered with the morning's corpses. In the evening, the fire was set at the Grande Manufacture.^[49] The massacre continued throughout the night in the Abbey district: houses were looted and then set on fire, and male civilians were shot. When the Germans left Leffe, only a dozen men were left alive. The 32nd Division built a boat bridge opposite the Pâtis de Leffe and crossed the Meuse.^[16][51][53]

Regiments no. 108, no. 182 of the 46th Brigade and the 12th and 48th artillery regiments came down the Rue Saint-Jacques. At 6:30 a.m., their vanguard reached the slaughterhouse, which was soon engulfed in flames. The Germans, finding fewer civilians in the dwellings, set fire to the whole district. The male civilians who had decided to stay were all executed, without exception. In the afternoon, a platoon from the 108th RI^[54] found around a hundred civilians taking refuge in the Nicaise brewery. The women and children were taken to the Leffe abbey; the men, numbering 30, were taken to rue des Tanneries, lined up along the mur Laurent and executed. Three of them managed to escape under the cover of falling darkness.^[16][53][54]

During the conflict, furniture looted from nearby houses was used by members of the 182nd RI to construct a barricade. Despite being found unarmed, a young man who was identified as a possible sniper was bound and held as a human shield. As their own troops were firing upon them, the group shot and killed their hostage before retreating.^[54]

Alexandre Daoust's evocation of the shooting at the Tschoffen wall (in the background, the prison) in 1917

The German 100th Regiment descended from Montagne de la Croix and launched an attack on the Saint-Nicolas district. The area was mercilessly ravaged from eight in the morning until eight in the evening.^{[nb 7][55]} A witness to these tragic events, Maurice Tschoffen, described the soldiers marching in two lines alongside the houses, with those on the right carefully monitoring those on the left, both with their fingers on the trigger, ready to open fire at any moment. In front of each doorway, groups formed and halted, firing bullets at the houses, with a particular focus on the windows. It was known that the soldiers threw numerous bombs into the cellars. Two men were fatally shot on their doorstep.^[56] Similar to what occurred on Rue Saint-Jacques, civilians were exploited as human shields on Place d'Armes, resulting in some of them being hit by French bullets fired from across the river. The German forces capitalized on the opportunity to cross the square and make their way to the Rivages area. They proceeded to set houses alight and take the civilians to the Bouille house. Afterward, they dispersed them amongst several outbuildings, the café, forge, and stables. As the fires spread, the Germans directed them towards the prison.^[56] Eventually, men and women were separated at the base of Croix Mountain. The women and children remained despite being asked to leave, to await news of the fate of their husbands, brothers, and sons. Some men were incarcerated while 137 others were arranged in four rows along Maurice Tschoffen's garden wall. Colonel Bernhard Kielmannsegg^[57] of the 100th RI issued the execution order, followed by two rounds of platoon gunfire and machine-gun fire shot at the corpses from the Frankinet garden's terrace.^[58] While around 30 men feigned death, 109 were killed. Most of the wounded individuals escaped from the pile of corpses during the night. In the subsequent days, five of them^[59] were apprehended and executed.^{[16][53][54][60]} Major von Loeben, in charge of one of the two execution teams - the other led by Lieutenant von Ehrenthal^[61] - testified to a German inquiry commission: "I presume that these were the men who had engaged in hostile activities against our troops".^[61]

To the south of the town, the German 101st Regiment arrived that afternoon via the Froidvau road^[62] and constructed a boat bridge upstream from Bayard Rock. To the south of the town, the German 101st Regiment arrived that afternoon via the Froidvau road and constructed a boat bridge upstream from Bayard Rock. Several civilians were taken hostages, including a group of Neffe residents forced to cross the river on boats. At around 5 p.m., the Germans encountered intense gunfire from the left bank, despite advancing 40 meters along the Meuse.^[63] On the basis of the claim that the "French were firing at them", the Germans executed 89 hostages against the wall of the Bourdon garden. The incident claimed the lives of 76, including 38 women and seven children, the youngest being three-week-old Madeleine Fivet. The 101st then crossed the Meuse to Neffe A group of 55 civilians had sought refuge in a small aqueduct underneath the railroad line. Karl Adolf von Zeschau instructed the attack with rifles and grenades, resulting in the deaths of 23 civilians and the injury of 12 others.^[16][53]

The Dinant bridge was blown up by the French around 6 p.m. on August 23 before they retreated along the Philippeville road. German brutality persisted in the ensuing days before ultimately diminishing. Those who emerged from hiding prematurely frequently paid with their lives. Civilians were compelled to inter the numerous bodies that adorned the pavement and plazas of Dinant and its surroundings.^[16][53]

Earlier at the prison, the Germans separated the women and children from the men. The men, aware of their fate, received absolution from a priest. Gunfire at the Tschoffen wall confused the prisoners and their jailers, leading some to believe the French were attempting to recapture the town. Ultimately, the execution did not occur, and the prisoners were taken to Bayard Rock. The women and children were then forced to journey on foot to Dréhance and Anseremme. The 416 men were awaiting deportation to Germany under Captain Hammerstein's command.^[16][53] They were directed to Marche and then transferred to Melreux (Belgium) station. The men were divided into groups of 40 and transported in cattle cars to Kassel prison in Germany.^[64]

The cloister of Abbaye Notre-Dame de Leffe

The prisoners' travel was made difficult by the brutality inflicted by German contingents and the local populations they came across.^[65] Some individuals were executed without trial after experiencing mental breakdowns. The imprisonment conditions were exceedingly harsh, resulting in the passing of some prisoners who were seriously injured during the Dinant trials and deported. Prison regulations prohibit family members from sharing the same cell. Additionally, four inmates were compelled to share 9 m² cells without even a straw mattress.^[66] During the first eight days, no excursions were permitted. Subsequently, the schedule was adjusted to allow just one outing per week, which was eventually increased to three. In his deposition, Maurice Tschoffen, the King's Public Prosecutor in Belgium, reported that the prison governor informed him that the military authorities in Berlin were convinced that no shots were fired in Dinant. The source of this assertion is unknown. So, there was no justification for our arrest, but I am uncertain why we were ultimately released.^[67] During a subsequent conversation in Belgium, General von Longchamps shared his findings about the events in Dinant with me. He conveyed, "From my investigation, it appears that no civilians fired at Dinant; however, there might have been some French soldiers disguised as civilians who fired. Additionally, in combat training, individuals can sometimes exceed the limits of their training."^[67]

Thirty-three clergymen were apprehended at the regimental school in Dinant and subsequently imprisoned in Marche for one month.^[64]

Dinant in ruins

During the sack, 750 buildings were burnt down or demolished, with two-thirds of the buildings destroyed.^[68]

• 
  The collegiate church and the destroyed bridge
• 
  The City Hall
• 
  The City Hall and Post Office from the left bank
• 
  Rue Grande
• 
  The Saint-Pierre district
• 
  Saint-Pierre church
• 
  Place Patenier
• 
  The ruins of Belle-vue College
• 
  Dinant was in ruins in March 1915, with only the roads cleared.

The German command

The mission of the XIIth Corps of the 3rd Army: Dinant

Max von Hausen commander of the 3rd German Army

The Third German Army was under the command of Saxon Max von Hausen. This army was divided into three corps. The XII Corps (1st Saxon Corps), commanded by Karl Ludwig d'Elsa, was tasked with taking Dinant and crossing the Meuse at that location. The XII Corps was further divided into two divisions: the 32nd Infantry Division, commanded by Lieutenant-General Horst Edler von der Planitz, and the 23rd Infantry Division, led by Karl von Lindeman.^[69][70]

Explaining the opinions of the war leaders, General Jakob von Hartmann stated, "While it is regrettable for individuals to suffer the consequences of being used as examples, it is beneficial for the community as a whole when strict punishment is imposed. In times of national war, terrorism becomes a necessary military principle."^[71] Max von Hausen, a veteran of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, advised the civilian population to avoid taking up arms against German troops. Consequently, the watchword at all levels of command was to "treat civilians with the utmost rigor."^[70]

The German General Staff received the first concrete reports of snipers in the east as the 3rd Army concentrated. The civilian population, allegedly incited by a biased press, the clergy, and the government, is allegedly acting on prearranged instructions. In light of this, it is imperative that we respond to this situation with utmost seriousness and stringent measures, without any hesitation.^[71]

The German belief in the "franc-tireurs myth" resulted in them taking the harshest possible action against the civilian population. During the Battle of Dinant, certain battalions and regiments were given orders to terrorize the civilian population. This instruction was issued as part of the battle against the French.^[72]

German advance in August 1914

This was the situation with Infantry Regiment No. 178, commanded by Colonel Kurt von Reyher, who was himself under the command of Brigade Commander General Major Morgenstern-Döring. The troops were instructed to use energetic means^[73] and act ruthlessly without any consideration towards the fanatical rebels.^[74] Major Kock of the 2nd Battalion was directed by Von Reyher to "purge the houses". Captain Wilke, who commanded the 6th and later the 9th company, initiated several operations to terrorize the civilian population, particularly in the Fonds de Leffe and at the abbey.^[70][75]

As per the 23rd Infantry Division's understanding, executions, looting, and burning in Les Rivages, St. Nicolas district, and Neffe, to the south of the city were mainly carried out by the 101st Saxon Grenadier Regiment, headed by Colonel Meister, and the 100th Infantry Regiment, headed by Lieutenant-Colonel Kilmannsegg, under Staff Warrant Officer Karl Adolf von Zeschau's coordination. Major Schlick, who commanded the 3rd and 4th companies of RI no. 101, demonstrated exceptional activity during these operations.^[76][77]

Following the sacking of Leffe, the 178th RI crossed the Meuse after the French troops withdrew and arrived in Bouvignes-sur-Meuse. There, it committed numerous violent acts that resulted in the death of 31 individuals.^[78] Delayed for one week, the German Third Army pursued its advance, leaving a country ravaged by looting, arson, and executions of civilians in its wake. The Germans faced two enemies - the French and the imagined francs-tireurs.^[79]

In February 1915, the first issue of the clandestine La Libre Belgique asserted, "There is something more robust than the Germans; it is the truth."^[80]

The victims

674 civilians^{[nb 8]} died during the siege of Dinant, including 92 women, 18 over the age of 60, and 16 under the age of 15. Out of the 577 men, 76 were over the age of 60 and 22 were under the age of 15. The oldest victim was 88 years old, while 14 children were under the age of 5, with the youngest only 3 weeks old.^[81]

A list of the victims' names was quickly circulated through an obituary. The first edition, published in 1915 by Dom Norbert Nieuwland, contains 606 names.^[82] The military authority occupying the area demanded that the population provide copies of the obituary, under threat of severe punishment.^[83]

In 1922, Nieuwland and Schmitz recorded 674 victims (including 5 missing),^[84] and in 1928, Nieuwland and Tschoffen reported the same number of victims and missing persons.^[85] Finally, just before the centennial, Michel Coleau and Michel Kellner revised the obituary and identified a total of 674 victims and three unidentified individuals.^[86]

The witnesses

Map of massacre sites

Just a few days after the events that struck Dinant, residents in the local community made the decision to document their personal accounts, allowing for the reconstruction of the events as they occurred. Three depositions from the Bishopric of Namur and the Abbey of Maredsous are noteworthy. The witnesses provide evidence that:^[87]

"The whole family was gathered at my parents' house, which backed onto the rock behind the homes of Joseph Rondelet and the widow Camille Thomas, on rue Saint-Pierre. My father, who worked in Mianoye (Assesse), was absent. On Sunday, August 23, at around 4 p.m., when we saw Germans settling into the Café Rondelet, whose owners had fled the day before, and drinking themselves into a stupor, we fled into the mountains. My mother, who had stood in front of us with 4-year-old Marcel in her arms, raised the hand that was still free. Nevertheless, the soldiers fired on us: a first bullet broke Marcel's arm, a second hit my mother in the wrist and a third blew her brains out. Other bullets hit my sisters Adèle and Éloïse, who fall. While Léon, Aline and Paul fled to one side, I managed to hide in a rock, where I remained until Monday evening. Then the Germans discovered me and, along with others, took me to the Premonstratensians, where I found those of my family still alive. Little René, my sister Éloïse's son, had been taken in by Mme Barzin and Mme Coupienne by order of the Germans. Arthur Bietlot, who buried our dead, declares that little Marcel's corpse was literally in pieces. Constantin Demuyter was buried with ours, but I don't know how he got there. Eugène Mathieu's corpse was also found in our garden, but a little higher up."

— Albine Bovy, Rapport no 431

The 76 victims of the "Bourdon Wall"

"Early in the morning of August 23, the cannon sounded and we thought we were witnessing a battle similar to that of the 15th . Taking advantage of a slight lull, at around 10 a.m., my father and I opened the front door to get a better idea of what was going on in the street. We quickly closed it, spotting German soldiers at the barracks, who had raised their rifles at the sight of us, and went underground. Some time later, we hear the sound of windows being broken and doors being kicked in. Soon we could clearly hear the blows of an axe shaking ours. My parents decided to open the door, and were already in the corridor, when the door gave way under the blows of these energetic men who burst into the house, shouting like demons, and unloading their weapons at point-blank range. My father, hit in the chest, staggered back a few steps, clung to his cutting table and fell: he was dead. My mother, hit in the shoulder, cries out in pain and takes refuge in the cellar, while my grandmother, trying to help her mortally wounded son, is herself hit by a bullet in the back of the neck that sends her sprawling to the ground. A fourth shot hit my grandfather, seated in an armchair, killing him. Seeing me, the bandits unload their weapons on me, but the bullets whistle past my ears without hitting me. The soldiers, convinced that they had spared no one, withdrew, and soon all around me was dead silence."^[88]

— Maurice Lion, Rapport no 426

"No sooner had we arrived in front of the Bourdon wall than we were fired upon; I fell. Alexandre Bourdon was on top of me. Around 9 p.m., I tried to get up; they immediately fired in my direction, but as I was below Bourdon, it was he who was hit. I could then see what was going on around me. I heard a baby crying and asking for a drink - it was little Gilda Marchot, aged 2. A German immediately approached, put the barrel of his rifle in the child's mouth and fired! Disgusted, I turned to the other side and saw a soldier carrying something at the end of his bayonet; I recognized the body of my little niece, Mariette Fivet, who was three weeks old. After playing with this child's corpse, the soldier laid it on the ground and put his foot on its stomach to remove his bayonet... The next day, I buried the bodies of my brother, my sister-in-law and little Mariette, 22 days old. I found that the baby's cloths were all torn in the stomach and filled with blood."^[89]

— Camille Fivet, Rapport no 475