The Waste Land
by T. S. Eliot
Title page of the first book edition (December 1922)
First published in
CountryUnited Kingdom
Publication date
  • 16 October 1922 (UK)
  • c. 20 October 1922 (US)
Media typePrint
Lines434
Full text
The Waste Land at Wikisource

The Waste Land is a poem by T. S. Eliot, widely regarded as one of the most important English language poems of the 20th century and a central work of modernist poetry. Published in 1922, the 434-line[upper-alpha 1] poem first appeared in the United Kingdom in the October issue of Eliot's The Criterion and in the United States in the November issue of The Dial. It was published in book form in December 1922. Among its famous phrases are "April is the cruellest month", "I will show you fear in a handful of dust", and "These fragments I have shored against my ruins".[1]

Eliot's poem combines the legend of the Holy Grail and the Fisher King with vignettes of contemporary British society. Eliot employs many allusions to the Western canon: Ovid's Metamorphoses, Dante's Divine Comedy, Shakespeare, Milton, Buddhist scriptures, the Hindu Upanishads and even a contemporary popular song, "That Shakespearian Rag". The poem shifts between voices of satire and prophecy, and features abrupt and unannounced changes of narrator, location, and time, conjuring a vast and dissonant range of cultures and literatures.

The poem is divided into five sections. The first, "The Burial of the Dead", introduces the diverse themes of disillusionment and despair. The second, "A Game of Chess", employs alternating narrations, in which vignettes of several characters address those themes experientially. "The Fire Sermon", the third section, offers a philosophical meditation in relation to the imagery of death and views of self-denial in juxtaposition, influenced by Augustine of Hippo and Eastern religions. After a fourth section, "Death by Water", which includes a brief lyrical petition, the culminating fifth section, "What the Thunder Said", concludes with an image of judgment.

History

Writing

Eliot in 1923

Eliot probably worked on the text that became The Waste Land for several years preceding its first publication in 1922. In 1919 he referred to "a long poem I have had on my mind for a long time" in a letter to his mother.[2] In a May 1921 letter to New York lawyer and "art patron" John Quinn, Eliot wrote that he had "a long poem in mind and partly on paper which I am wishful to finish".[3]

Richard Aldington, in his memoirs, relates that "a year or so" before Eliot read him the manuscript draft of The Waste Land in London, Eliot visited him in the country.[4] While walking through a graveyard, they discussed Thomas Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. Aldington writes: "I was surprised to find that Eliot admired something so popular, and then went on to say that if a contemporary poet, conscious of his limitations as Gray evidently was, would concentrate all his gifts on one such poem he might achieve a similar success."[4]

In the autumn of 1921 Eliot and his first wife, Vivienne Haigh-Wood Eliot, travelled to the coastal resort of Margate.[5] Eliot had been recommended rest following a diagnosis of some form of nervous disorder, and had been granted three months' leave from the bank where he was employed, so the trip was intended as a period of convalescence. Eliot worked on what would become The Waste Land while sitting in the Nayland Rock shelter on Margate Sands, producing "some 50 lines", and the area is referenced directly in Part III of the poem ("On Margate Sands / I can connect / Nothing with nothing.")[6][7] The couple travelled to Paris in November, where Eliot showed an early version of the poem to Ezra Pound.[8] Eliot was travelling on to Lausanne for treatment by Dr Roger Vittoz, who had been recommended to him by Ottoline Morrell;[6][9] Vivienne was to stay at a sanatorium just outside Paris.[8] While under Vittoz's care, Eliot completed the first draft.[10]

Editing

Ezra Pound, a major editor of the work

Eliot returned from Switzerland to Paris in early January 1922 with the 19-page draft version of the poem; his treatment with Dr Vittoz proved to have been very successful, at least in the short term.[11][12] Eliot and Pound proceeded to edit the poem further, continuing after Eliot returned to London.[13][14] The editing process removed a large amount of content. Eliot allowed Pound a large amount of control over the shape and contents of the final version, deferring to his judgement on matters such as using Eliot's previous poem "Gerontion" as a prelude, or using an excerpt from the death of Kurtz in Conrad's Heart of Darkness as the epigraph.[15] Ackroyd (1984) considers Pound's focus to have been on "the underlying rhythm of the poem ... Pound heard the music, and cut away what was for him the extraneous material which was attached to it."[16] By removing much of Eliot's material, Pound allowed for readers to more freely interpret it as a less structured and didactic work, and his edits are generally considered to have been beneficial.[17][18]

Vivienne also reviewed drafts of The Waste Land.[19] The section "A Game of Chess" partly depicts scenes from the Eliots' marriage,[19] although at her request a specific line was removed – "The ivory men make company between us" – perhaps because she found the depiction of their unhappy marriage too painful.[20][21] In 1960, thirteen years after Vivienne's death, Eliot inserted the line from memory into a fair copy made for sale to aid the London Library.[22]

In a late December 1921 letter to Eliot to celebrate the "birth" of the poem, Pound wrote a bawdy poem of 48 lines entitled "Sage Homme" in which he identified Eliot as the mother of the poem but compared himself to the midwife.[23] The first lines are:

These are the poems of Eliot
By the Uranian Muse begot;
A Man their Mother was,
A Muse their Sire.
How did the printed Infancies result
From Nuptials thus doubly difficult?
If you must needs enquire
Know diligent Reader
That on each Occasion
Ezra performed the Caesarean Operation.

Publication

Negotiations over the publication of The Waste Land started in January 1922 and lasted until the late summer.[24] Horace Liveright of the New York publishing firm of Boni & Liveright had a number of meetings with Ezra Pound while in Paris, and at a dinner on 3 January 1922 with Pound, Eliot and James Joyce, he made offers for The Waste Land, Ulysses, and works by Pound.[25] Eliot was to receive a royalty of 15% for a book version of the poem planned for autumn publication,[26] although Liveright was concerned that the work was too short.[27][upper-alpha 2] Eliot was still under contract with his previous publisher Alfred Knopf, which gave Knopf the rights to Eliot's next two books, but in April Eliot managed to secure a release from that agreement.[24]

Eliot also sought a deal with magazines. He had become friends with Scofield Thayer, editor of literary magazine The Dial, while at Milton Academy and Harvard College, and Eliot had offered the poem to Thayer for publication shortly after returning from Lausanne in January.[29] Even though The Dial offered $150 (approx. £30-35) for the poem, 25% more than its standard rate, Eliot was offended that a year's work would be valued so low, especially since he knew that George Moore had been paid £100 for a short story.[30] The deal with The Dial almost fell through (other magazines considered were the Little Review and Vanity Fair),[31] but with Quinn's efforts eventually a deal was worked out where, in addition to the $150, Eliot would be awarded The Dial's second annual prize for outstanding service to letters, which carried an award of $2,000.[32][33]

In New York, in late summer, Boni & Liveright made an agreement with The Dial allowing the magazine to be the first to publish the poem in the US if they agreed to purchase 350 copies of the book at discount from Boni & Liveright (increasing the cost to The Dial by $315).[34] Eliot suggested that the "possibility of the book's getting the prize" might allow Boni & Liveright to use the publicity increase their initial sales.[35]

The poem was first published without the author's notes, in the UK in the first issue (16 October 1922) of Eliot's magazine The Criterion and in the US in the November issue of The Dial magazine (actually published around 20 October).[36] Eliot had initially suggested spreading it over four issues of The Dial, having doubts about its coherence as a single piece, and had considered publishing it across two issues of The Criterion in order to improve sales, but Pound objected.[37] In December the poem was published in the US in book form by Boni & Liveright, with an initial run of 1,000 copies and, very soon after, a second edition, also of 1,000 copies.[37] This was the first publication to print Eliot's accompanying notes, which he had added to pad the piece out and thereby address Liveright's concerns about its length.[36][38] In September 1923, the Hogarth Press, a private press run by Eliot's friends Leonard and Virginia Woolf, published the first UK book edition of The Waste Land in an edition of about 460 copies.[39]

Eliot, whose 1922 annual salary at Lloyds Bank was £500 ($2,215),[40] made approximately £630 ($2,800) with The Dial, Boni & Liveright, and Hogarth Press publications.[41]

Eliot sent the original manuscript drafts of the poem as a gift to John Quinn, believing it to be worthwhile to preserve the effects of Pound's editing; they arrived in New York in January 1923.[42] Upon Quinn's death in 1924 they were inherited by his sister Julia Anderson. Years later, in the early 1950s, Mrs Anderson's daughter Mary Conroy found the documents in storage. In 1958 she sold them privately to the New York Public Library. It was not until April 1968, three years after Eliot's death, that the existence and whereabouts of the manuscript drafts were made known to Valerie Eliot, the poet's second wife and widow.[43] In 1971 a facsimile of the original drafts was published, containing Pound's annotations, edited and annotated by Valerie Eliot.[44]

Initial reception

The initial reviews of the poem were mixed.[45] Some critics disparaged its disjointed structure, and suggested that its extensive use of quotations gave it a sense of unoriginality.[46] F. L. Lucas wrote a particularly negative review in the New Statesman, stating that "Eliot has shown that he can at moments write real blank verse; but that is all";[47] The Guardian published a review calling it "waste paper", and the London Mercury considered it incomprehensible.[48][49] William Carlos Williams considered it to have had a negative influence on American literature, writing that it had "set [him] back twenty years".[49]

Gilbert Seldes, who first published the poem in the US, and Ezra Pound, its editor, both defended it, as did Conrad Aiken, who described it in a 1923 review as "one of the most moving and original poems of our time",[50] although he found the form incoherent.[51] Seldes commissioned a review from Edmund Wilson, which was positive, and other admirers included E. M. Forster, Edmund Wilson and Cyril Connolly.[46][52] Contemporary poets and young writers responded to the poem's modern style and content, a mini-phenomenon later described as "a cult of 'The Waste Landers'".[52]

Subsequent reviews and criticism debated the value of some of Eliot's innovations. His notes and quotations were one source of disagreement: they were considered either "distracting or confusing if not pedantic and unpoetic", or "the very basis of a new and significant poetic technique".[53] The structure of the poem, or lack thereof, also continued to generate debate, as did interpretations of the themes themselves.[53] I. A. Richards praised Eliot on these points in his 1926 book Principles of Literary Criticism,[54] describing his imagery technique as "a 'music of ideas'",[55] and in the 1930s Richards' commentary was taken further by F. R. Leavis, F. O. Matthiessen and Cleanth Brooks, who believed that, despite its apparent disjointedness, the poem contains an underlying unity of form—for Leavis represented by the figure of Tiresias, and for Matthiessen and Brooks by the Grail mythology.[56] This view became dominant for the next three decades.[57]

Contents

Title

Eliot originally considered entitling the poem He Do the Police in Different Voices,[58] and in the original manuscripts the first two sections of the poem appear under this title.[59] This phrase is taken from Charles Dickens' novel Our Mutual Friend, in which the widow Betty Higden says of her adopted foundling son Sloppy, "You mightn't think it, but Sloppy is a beautiful reader of a newspaper. He do the Police in different voices."[58]

In the end, the title Eliot chose was The Waste Land. In his first note to the poem he attributes the title to Jessie Weston's book on the Grail legend, From Ritual to Romance.[60] Weston interprets the fish symbol as an analogy for fertility, a connection which was later lost in the Grail legend, which features a Fisher King rendered infertile by injury and ruling a land cursed to be barren. The poem can therefore be interpreted as being, at least in part, narrated by a Fisher King character living in a modern industrial "wasted land".[61][62]

The poem's title is often mistakenly given as "Waste Land" or "Wasteland". However, in a letter to Ezra Pound, Eliot politely insisted that the title was three words beginning with "The".[63]

Structure

The epigraph and dedication of The Waste Land.

Did he live his life again in every detail of desire, temptation, and surrender during that supreme moment of complete knowledge? He cried in a whisper at some image, at some vision, – he cried out twice, a cry that was no more than a breath–

"'The horror! the horror!'"

Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness
Eliot's original choice of epigraph.[64]

The poem is preceded by a Latin and Ancient Greek epigraph (without translation) from chapter 48 of the Satyricon of Petronius:

Nam Sibyllam quidem Cumis ego ipse oculis meis vidi in ampulla pendere, et cum illi pueri dicerent: Σίβυλλα τί θέλεις; respondebat illa: άποθανεῖν θέλω.
With my own eyes I saw the Sibyl at Cumae hanging in a bottle and, when the attendants asked her what she wanted, she replied, "I want to die."[65]

Eliot originally intended the epigraph to be a small section of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness describing the death of the character Kurtz. Pound suggested it be changed as Conrad was not "weighty" enough, although it is unclear if he was referring to the author or the quotation itself.[64]

Following the epigraph is a dedication (added in a 1925 republication) that reads "For Ezra Pound: il miglior fabbro". Here Eliot is both quoting line 117 of Canto XXVI of Dante's Purgatorio, where Dante pays troubadour Arnaut Daniel the same compliment, and also Pound's The Spirit of Romance (1910), which contains a chapter with that title (translated as "the better craftsman").[66][67] This dedication was originally handwritten by Eliot in the 1922 Boni & Liveright edition of the poem presented to Pound; it was subsequently included in future editions.[66]

The five parts of The Waste Land are entitled:

  • I. The Burial of the Dead
  • II. A Game of Chess
  • III. The Fire Sermon
  • IV. Death by Water
  • V. What the Thunder Said

The text of the poem is followed by several pages of notes by Eliot, purporting to explain his own metaphors, references, and allusions. These notes are of limited use to the reader, and Eliot's own views on the poem changed over the succeeding decades.[68]

Style

The style of the poem is marked by the many intertextual allusions and quotations that Eliot included, and their juxtaposition.[69][70] In addition to the many "highbrow" references and quotations from poets such as Baudelaire, Dante, Ovid, and Homer, he also included several references to "lowbrow" genres, such as an allusion to the 1912 popular song "That Shakespearian Rag" by lyricists Herman Ruby and Gene Buck.[71][72] The poem contrasts such elements throughout: "Ornate vocabulary gives way to colloquial dialogue, lyrical moments are interrupted by sordid intrusions, the comic and the macabre coexist with the solemn words of religious instruction, one language is supplanted by another, until in the final lines of the poem the fragments are collected together."[70]

The Waste Land is notable for its seemingly disjointed structure, employing a wide variety of voices which are presented sometimes in monologue, dialogue, or with more than two characters speaking.[73] The poem jumps from one voice or image to another without clearly delineating these shifts for the reader, creating the paradoxical effect of a poem which contains deeply personal subject matter being simultaneously an impersonal collage.[74] As Eliot explained in his 1919 essay "Tradition and the Individual Talent", he saw the ideal poet as a conduit who creates a piece of art that reflects culture and society, as well as their own perspective and experiences, in an impersonal and craftsmanlike way.[75]

The poem plays with traditional forms of metre and rhyme, often implying blank verse without strictly committing to it (especially through quotations of works that are themselves written in such a metre). Lines are often fragmented, and verses are generally of unequal length.[76] During the editing process, Pound would highlight lines that were "too penty" (i.e. too close to iambic pentameter), prompting them to be changed to less regular rhythms.[77] Eliot disliked the term "free verse", however, believing it impossible to write verse that is truly "free".[78]

Sources and influences

Sources which Eliot quotes or alludes to include the works of classical figures Sophocles, Petronius, Virgil, and Ovid; 14th-century writers Dante and Geoffrey Chaucer; Elizabethan and Jacobean writers Edmund Spenser, Thomas Kyd, William Shakespeare, Thomas Middleton, and John Webster; 19th-century figures Gérard de Nerval, Paul Verlaine, Charles Baudelaire, Alfred Tennyson, Richard Wagner; and more contemporary writers Aldous Huxley, Hermann Hesse, Frank Chapman and F. H. Bradley.[79]

Eliot also makes extensive use of religious writings, including the Christian Bible and the Book of Common Prayer, the Hindu Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and the Buddha's Fire Sermon; and of cultural and anthropological studies such as James Frazer's The Golden Bough and Jessie Weston's From Ritual to Romance.[79]

As well as drawing from myth and fiction, Eliot included people he knew as figures in the poem. "The Burial of the Dead" contains the character Marie, who is based on Marie Larisch,[22] and the "hyacinth girl" is Emily Hale, with whom Eliot had fallen in love several years previously.[80] "A Game of Chess" features a representation of Vivienne;[81] and its conversations are taken from those overheard by the couple while in a local pub.[82]

Scholars have identified more contemporary artistic influences on Eliot, contrary to the poet's own focus on older and non-English-language influences.[83] Eliot had read early drafts of parts of Ulysses and corresponded with Joyce about them, and its influence is seen in the Symbolist use of cross-references and stylistic variety in The Waste Land.[84][85] He was also influenced by the mythic parallels between the characters of Ulysses and those of the Odyssey, writing that this "mythical method" had "the importance of a scientific discovery".[86] Eliot would later express the opinion that Ulysses was a superior example of such literary developments, and the novel has been described as "the most important model for the poem".[87]

Eliot was resistant to ascribing any influence to Walt Whitman, instead expressing a preference for Jules Laforgue (who was himself a Whitman translator and admirer).[88] Nevertheless, scholars have noted strong similarities in the two poets' use of free verse. The first lines of The Waste Land, which are an inversion of Chaucer's opening to The Canterbury Tales, also strongly resemble Whitman's "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd":[89][90]

April is the cruellest month, breeding
Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing
Memory and desire, stirring
Dull roots with spring rain.
— T. S. Eliot, The Waste Land, lines 1–4[91]
When lilacs last in the dooryard bloom'd,
And the great star early droop'd in the western sky in the night,
I mourn'd, and yet shall mourn with ever-returning spring.
— Walt Whitman, "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd", lines 1–3[92]
Whan that Aprille with his shoures sote
The droghte of Marche hath perced to the rote,
And bathed every veyne in swich licour,
Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
— Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales (Prologue), lines 1–4[93]

The Waste Land was also informed by developments in the visual arts. Its style and content reflect the methods of Cubism and Futurism to take apart and reassemble their subjects in different forms, and the interest of Surrealism in the unconscious mind and its influence on culture, similar to Eliot's interest in The Golden Bough.[94] Korg (1960) identifies similarities with the collage techniques of Braque and Picasso, wherein the artists' increasingly non-representational works would include a small piece of "realistic" detail. In the same sense, The Waste Land directly includes "reality", such as the pub conversation and the phrase "London Bridge is falling down", alongside its "imagined" content, to achieve a similar effect.[95]

In 1913 Madison Cawein published a poem called "Waste Land", which journalist Christopher Hitchens identifies as an inspiration to Eliot.[96]

Interpretations

Eliot came to regret the publication of his notes alongside the poem, saying in a 1956 lecture that they had "sent so many enquirers off on a wild goose chase after Tarot cards and the Holy Grail" and writing that they had prompted "bogus scholarship".[97][28] This comment led to The Waste Land being seen less as a work which incorporates previous Romantic ideals and the "magic of the grail legend", and more as a poem describing "alienation, fragmentation, despair and disenchantment", which are considered typical features of modernist literature.[98]

The original manuscript of The Waste Land, previously thought lost,[99] was published in facsimile form in 1971, spurring renewed interest in the poem and its original compositional process.[100] Combined with previous research into the poem's genesis as several unconnected works, biographical research into Eliot's life after his death in 1965, and a postmodernist approach to poetry which rejects the idea of searching for unifying themes and meaning, more modern interpretations are tolerant of accepting the poem as a fragmented piece not unified by overarching narrative structures, and as a piece of art open to a number of interpretations.[101]

The quotes in Sanskrit, which the author studied while at Harvard University in 1911–1914,[102] are particularly relevant for the definition of the final and most complex section of the poem: "What the Thunder Said". The three words "datta", "dayadhvam" and "damyata" are taken from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as an instruction to observe charity, compassion and self-control, and the poem's final line is the same as that of every Upanishad: "Shantih shantih shantih" ("peace peace peace").[103] Bhatta (2018) interprets this as a wish for the readers to end their post-war suffering on the physical, natural and spiritual planes by following these virtues.[103]

In 1936, E. M. Forster wrote about The Waste Land:[104]

Let me go straight to the heart of the matter, fling my poor little hand on the table, and say what I think The Waste Land is about. It is about the fertilizing waters that arrived too late. It is a poem of horror. The earth is barren, the sea salt, the fertilizing thunderstorm broke too late. And the horror is so intense that the poet has an inhibition and is unable to state it openly.

What are the roots that clutch, what branches grow
Out of this stony rubbish ? Son of man,
You cannot say, or guess, for you know only
A heap of broken images.

He cannot say 'Avaunt!' to the horror, or he would crumble into dust. Consequently, there are outworks and blind alleys all over the poem—obstacles which are due to the nature of the central emotion, and are not to be charged to the reader. The Waste Land is Mr. Eliot's greatest achievement. It intensifies the drawing-room premonitions of the earlier poems, and it is the key to what is puzzling in the prose. But, if I have its hang, it has nothing to do with the English tradition in literature, or law or order, nor, except incidentally, has the rest of his work anything to do with them either. It is just a personal comment on the universe, as individual and as isolated as Shelley's Prometheus.

... Gerard Manly Hopkins is a case in point—a poet as difficult as Mr. Eliot, and far more specialized ecclesiastically, yet however twisted his diction and pietistic his emotion, there is always a hint to the layman to come in if he can, and participate. Mr. Eliot does not want us in. He feels we shall increase the barrenness. To say he is wrong would be rash, and to pity him would be the height of impertinence, but it does seem proper to emphasize the real as opposed to the apparent difficulty of his work. He is difficult because he has seen something terrible, and (underestimating, I think, the general decency of his audience) has declined to say so plainly.

Influence

The Waste Land is considered to be one of the most important and influential poems of the 20th century.[5][105][106] Journalist Anthony Lane writes that The Waste Land is "a symphony of shocks, and like other masterworks of early modernism, it refuses to die down ... The shocks have triggered aftershocks, and readers of Eliot are trapped in the quake. Escape is useless."[107] Eliot inspired many of his contemporaries to incorporate the mythic method, the use of classic sources in a modern setting.

F. Scott Fitzgerald was heavily influenced by The Waste Land when writing The Great Gatsby. Fitzgerald's novel contains a "valley of ashes" which is a kind of waste land. Gatsby was also set in 1922, the year The Waste Land was published.[108] Fitzgerald compares Gatsby to Trimalchio (a working title was Trimalchio in West Egg) who is also referenced in The Waste Land.

William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying was influenced by "The Burial of the Dead". The title of Evelyn Waugh's A Handful of Dust comes from the poem. Both Genesis and Pet Shop Boys drew lyrical inspiration from the poem for "The Cinema Show" and "West End Girls", respectively,[109][110] particularly in the latter's use of different narrative voices and arcane references.[111]

Lane writes that "the more closely you map The Waste Land, the more it assumes the shape of an isthmus; so much of the past, both public and personal, streamed into its making, and so much has flowed from it ever since. When one of its most resonant quatrains is declaimed through a megaphone by Anthony Blanche, the resident dandy of Brideshead Revisited, he is obviously signaling the fashionable status of the poem, as its fame increased through the nineteen-twenties and thirties, but there's more to it than that. He is restoring, as it were, the adamantine beauty of the rhyming lines—pentameters in parenthesis, which embed the travails of the present day inside the remoteness of myth:

(And I Tiresias have foresuffered all
Enacted on the same divan or bed;
I who have sat by Thebes below the wall
And walked among the lowest of the dead.)"[107]

Parodies

Parodies of this poem have also been written, including one by Eliot's contemporary H. P. Lovecraft, provocatively entitled "Waste Paper: A Poem of Profound Insignificance". Written in 1922 or 1923, it is regarded by scholar S. T. Joshi to be one of Lovecraft's best satires.[112] Wendy Cope published a parody of The Waste Land, condensing the poem into five limericks, Waste Land Limericks, in her 1986 collection Making Cocoa for Kingsley Amis.[113]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ↑ Due to a line counting error Eliot footnoted some of the last lines incorrectly (with the last line being given as 433). The error was never corrected and a line count of 433 is often cited.
  2. ↑ Eliot discussing his notes: "[W]hen it came time to print The Waste Land as a little book—for the poem on its first appearance in The Dial and in The Criterion had no notes whatever—it was discovered that the poem was inconveniently short, so I set to work to expand the notes, in order to provide a few more pages of printed matter, with the result that they became the remarkable exposition of bogus scholarship that is still on view to-day."[28]

Citations

  1. ↑ Tearle 2021.
  2. ↑ Gish 1988, p. 24.
  3. ↑ Eliot 1988, pp. 273, 451.
  4. 1 2 Aldington 1941, p. 261.
  5. 1 2 Bennett 2009.
  6. 1 2 McAloon 2018.
  7. ↑ British Library 2023.
  8. 1 2 Ackroyd 1984, p. 115.
  9. ↑ Harris 2006, p. 44.
  10. ↑ Gold 2000, p. 519.
  11. ↑ Rainey 1991, pp. 95–96, 125.
  12. ↑ Into 'The Waste Land' 2022, 57:00.
  13. ↑ Eliot 1994, p. xxii.
  14. ↑ Ackroyd 1984, p. 117.
  15. ↑ Ackroyd 1984, pp. 117, 120–121.
  16. ↑ Ackroyd 1984, p. 119.
  17. ↑ Ackroyd 1984, p. 120.
  18. ↑ Wilhelm 1990, pp. 308–309.
  19. 1 2 Parker 2023.
  20. ↑ Eliot 1994, pp. 13, 126.
  21. ↑ Into 'The Waste Land' 2022, 41:00.
  22. 1 2 Eliot 1994, p. 126.
  23. ↑ Eliot 1988, p. 498.
  24. 1 2 Ackroyd 1984, pp. 125–126.
  25. ↑ Rainey 1991, pp. 95–96.
  26. ↑ Rainey 2005, p. 77.
  27. ↑ Rainey 1991, p. 97.
  28. 1 2 Eliot 1986, pp. 109–110.
  29. ↑ Ackroyd 1984, pp. 61, 111, 121.
  30. ↑ Rainey 1991, pp. 98–99.
  31. ↑ Rainey 1991, pp. 92–93.
  32. ↑ Rainey 1991, pp. 103, 120.
  33. ↑ Eliot 1994, p. xxiv.
  34. ↑ Rainey 2005, p. 86.
  35. ↑ Rainey 1991, p. 105.
  36. 1 2 Rainey 1991, p. 92.
  37. 1 2 Ackroyd 1984, p. 126.
  38. ↑ In Our Time 2009, 32:40.
  39. ↑ Rainey 1991, p. 115.
  40. ↑ Gordon 2000, p. 165.
  41. ↑ Rainey 2005, p. 100.
  42. ↑ Gish 1988, pp. 22–23.
  43. ↑ Eliot 1994, p. xxix.
  44. ↑ Gish 1988, p. 23.
  45. ↑ Into 'The Waste Land' 2022, 1:16:40.
  46. 1 2 Gish 1988, p. 10.
  47. ↑ Lucas 1923, p. 38.
  48. ↑ Powell 2022.
  49. 1 2 Ackroyd 1984, p. 127.
  50. ↑ Aiken 1923, p. 99.
  51. ↑ Gish 1988, pp. 10–11.
  52. 1 2 Ackroyd 1984, p. 128.
  53. 1 2 Gish 1988, p. 11.
  54. ↑ Gish 1988, pp. 11–12.
  55. ↑ Richards 1926, p. 53.
  56. ↑ Gish 1988, pp. 12–13.
  57. ↑ Gish 1988, p. 13.
  58. 1 2 Emery-Peck 2008, p. 331.
  59. ↑ Eliot 1994, pp. 4–21.
  60. ↑ Eliot 1961, p. 58.
  61. ↑ Brooks, Jr. 1937, p. 196.
  62. ↑ Langbaum 1937, p. 234.
  63. ↑ Eliot 1988, p. 567.
  64. 1 2 Davidson 1994, p. 121.
  65. ↑ Richardson, Jr. 2002, p. 77.
  66. 1 2 Wilhelm 1990, p. 309.
  67. ↑ Pound 2005, p. 33.
  68. ↑ Macrae 1980, p. 58.
  69. ↑ Radulović 2021, p. 126.
  70. 1 2 Macrae 1980, pp. 57–58.
  71. ↑ McElderry, Jr. 1957, p. 30.
  72. ↑ North 2001, p. 51.
  73. ↑ MacCabe 2006.
  74. ↑ Lewis 2007, pp. 137–138.
  75. ↑ Lewis 2007, p. 138.
  76. ↑ Lewis 2007, pp. 140–141.
  77. ↑ Into 'The Waste Land' 2022, 1:04:20.
  78. ↑ Lewis 2007, p. 140.
  79. 1 2 Weirick 1971.
  80. ↑ Into 'The Waste Land' 2022, 16:45.
  81. ↑ Into 'The Waste Land' 2022, 36:45, 38:45.
  82. ↑ Into 'The Waste Land' 2022, 31:15.
  83. ↑ Bloom 2002, p. 371.
  84. ↑ Lewis 2007, p. 136.
  85. ↑ Macrae 1980, pp. 13–14.
  86. ↑ Lewis 2007, p. 146.
  87. ↑ Lewis 2007, pp. 136, 146.
  88. ↑ Bloom 2002, p. 372.
  89. ↑ Lewis 2007, pp. 132, 142.
  90. ↑ Bloom 2002, pp. 334, 371.
  91. ↑ Eliot 1922.
  92. ↑ Whitman 1882.
  93. ↑ Chaucer 1900.
  94. ↑ Korg 1960, pp. 88–89, 93.
  95. ↑ Korg 1960, pp. 91–92.
  96. ↑ Hitchens 2002, p. 297.
  97. ↑ Owens-Murphy 2011, p. 48.
  98. ↑ Owens-Murphy 2011, pp. 48–49.
  99. ↑ Hart-Davis 1998, p. 55.
  100. ↑ Gish 1988, p. 15.
  101. ↑ Gish 1988, pp. 15–17.
  102. ↑ Bhatta 2018, p. 93.
  103. 1 2 Bhatta 2018, p. 103.
  104. ↑ Forster 1940, pp. 91–92.
  105. ↑ In Our Time 2009, 00:12.
  106. ↑ Into 'The Waste Land' 2022, 3:20.
  107. 1 2 Lane 2022.
  108. ↑ Elliott 1966.
  109. ↑ Macan 1997.
  110. ↑ Awde 2008.
  111. ↑ BBC Radio 2.
  112. ↑ Marshall 2018.
  113. ↑ BBC Poetry 2014.

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