William Clapham
Born1722
Boston, Massachusetts Bay, British America
Died28 May 1763(1763-05-28) (aged 40–41)
West Newton, Province of Pennsylvania, British America
Years of service1747–1757
RankColonel
UnitClapham's Rangers,
Third Battalion, Pennsylvania Regiment of Foot
Commands heldFort Hunter, Fort Halifax, Fort Augusta
Battles/warsFather Le Loutre's War, Battle at St. Croix, Battle at Chignecto, Raid on Dartmouth (1751)

William Clapham (1722 – 28 May, 1763) was an American military officer who participated in the construction of several forts in Pennsylvania during the French and Indian War. He was considered a competent commander in engagements with French troops and Native American warriors, but towards the end of his military career he was unpopular with troops under his command. Following his retirement from the army, he and his family were killed by Lenape warriors on his farm in 1763.

Early career and family

Nothing is known of William Clapham's early life. He was appointed captain in Boston on 1 November, 1747, and may have been born in Massachusetts.[1]

He was married to Mary Clapham.[2]: 604  He had one son, William Clapham, Jr., who served as a lieutenant in the Third Battalion, Pennsylvania Regiment of Foot after it was formed in late March, 1756,[3]: 53 [4]: 47  and who was killed by two Panis slaves in June 1762.[5]: 144 [6] Clapham also had a daughter Mary.[7]

Defamation case, 1747

Court records for Suffolk County, Massachusetts, show that on 30 June, 1747, Clapham filed charges against William MacLanahan for defamation, claiming that MacLanahan

"did on ye fifteenth of June instant at Boston aforesd in ye hearing of Sundry persons willingly & malisciouly utter these false & scandalous Words, concerning ye Complainant, He (meaning the Complainant) is Lyar & a Cheat & has cheated his men (meaning the Soldiers under his Command) of their Provisions; He has used them cruelly & beat one them in such a manner as caused his Death."[8]

The outcome of the case is not recorded.

Service in Nova Scotia, 1748–1754

British soldiers in Halifax, 1749.

In 1748, Clapham was sent as a company commander to defend Annapolis Royal as part of a New England reinforcement for Nova Scotia, where he served with Jedidiah Preble and Benjamin Goldthwait.[9][1]: 121 

Clapham was stationed in Nova Scotia during Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755). On 19 August 1749, Captain Clapham was in command at Canso, Nova Scotia, when Lieutenant Joseph Gorham and his party were attacked by Mi'kmaq[10] who took twenty prisoners and carried them off to Louisbourg. After Governor Edward Cornwallis complained to the Governor of Ile Royale, the prisoners were released.[11]

After the 1749 raid on Dartmouth, Clapham raised a company of 70 men, known as "Clapham's Rangers," to fight the Mi'kmaq.[1]: 162  Governor Cornwallis offered £10 for every Mi'kmaq scalp or prisoner. The bounty of scalps was raised to £50 in 1750, motivating Clapham and Francis Bartelo to form new ranger companies to search the land around Halifax for Mi'kmaq. Clapham relieved John Gorham in the Battle at St. Croix on 23 March, 1750,[1]: 175  by arriving at Pisiguit with his company of rangers and two cannons, forcing the Mi'kmaq to withdraw.[12]: 155  Clapham fought in the Battle at Chignecto on 3 September, 1750.[13] Although fighting continued across the Chignecto Isthmus during 1751, by summer Cornwallis had disbanded all ranger companies except Gorham's Rangers,[14] a primarily Native American unit formed in 1744.[15]

During the 1751 raid on Dartmouth[1]: 181  (also referred to as the Dartmouth Massacre[16]) on 13 May, 1751, Miꞌkmaq warriors and Acadian militia under the command of Acadian Joseph Broussard, raided Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, destroying the town, killing twenty British civilians and wounding four British soldiers. Captain Clapham and 60 troops from the 45th Regiment of Foot were stationed on Blockhouse Hill.[17] He and the company are reported to have remained within the blockhouse firing from the loopholes during the whole raid. A court martial was called on 14 May, the day after the raid, to inquire into the conduct of the commanding officers who allowed the town to be destroyed.[18]: 28  In June, Clapham's sergeant was acquitted.[19]

Prosecution for homicide, 1751

In 1751, Clapham was prosecuted in Halifax for killing a drunk prisoner by gagging him too tightly. The case was unique in that Clapham was not brought before a court martial, but was instead tried in a civilian court.[20]: 90, 101  The outcome of the case is not recorded.

Divorce, 1754

Following his service in Nova Scotia, Clapham returned to Boston to face divorce proceedings. Records for the Massachusetts House of Representatives for 17 October, 1754, show a "special act" in the case of Mary Clapham v. William Clapham,[21]: 165  sponsored in part by James Otis Sr., dissolving their marriage contract,[22]: 91  after William Clapham stood convicted of "leaving the said Mary, cohabiting and committing Adultery with Another Woman in Nova Scotia."[2]: 604  The act allowed Mary to marry again, and the council later awarded Mary her household furniture, worth £100.[23]: 467 [24]: 602, 604 

Promotion to colonel, 1756

Clapham then moved to Pennsylvania to assist Benjamin Franklin in constructing a series of forts along the frontier.[25]: 31 [26]: 186  In late 1755, Governor Robert Hunter Morris ordered the construction of forts garrisoned with colonial militia, and plans were made to begin building Fort Hunter, Fort Halifax, and Fort Augusta. Following the Penn's Creek massacre, the Great Cove massacre, and the Gnadenhütten massacre, Benjamin Franklin had been charged with the rapid construction of three small forts in northeastern Pennsylvania (Fort Allen, Fort Franklin, and Fort Lebanon) but he felt that the responsibility for building forts should be given to someone with more military training, and offered a commission to Clapham, who accepted.[27] Franklin writes in his autobiography:

"I had hardly finished this business and got my fort well stored with provisions, when I received a letter from the Governor...and my three intended forts being now completed, and the inhabitants contented to remain on their farms under that protection, I resolved to return; the more willingly as a New England Officer, Col. Clapham, experienced in Indian War, being on a visit to our establishment, consented to accept the Command. I gave him a commission, and, parading the garrison, had it read before them, and introduced him to them as an officer who, from his skill in military affairs, was much more fit to command them than myself."[28]: 179 

Clapham was promoted from captain to colonel in February, 1756,[29]: 202  and given command over the Third Battalion, Pennsylvania Regiment of Foot (known as the Augusta Regiment[30]), and over defenses in Northampton County.[29]: 188 

Fort Hunter

Reconstructed blockhouse and stockade similar in appearance to the one at Fort Hunter.

The Pennsylvania government decided to construct a fort at Hunter's Mill in response to the Penn's Creek Massacre in October 1755. The mill was probably five hundred feet east of the mouth of Fishing Creek, near its confluence with the Susquehanna River, in present-day Dauphin County.[31] Fort Hunter was initially a stockaded gristmill in the Great Valley, owned by Samuel Hunter who lived on Fishing Creek.[32]: 72  The mill was fortified with a simple stockade in January, 1756, and garrisoned with volunteer militia recruited by Thomas McKee, an Indian trader who operated a trading post nearby. He was appointed captain of "McKee's Volunteers," but provisions, clothing and ammunition were in short supply, and the post was vulnerable to attack.[33]

On 8 March, 1756, Benjamin Franklin wrote to August Gottlieb Spangenberg that:

"We are apt to think, that the Guarrison in the Forts, after being a little more used to the Woods, and acquainted with the cunning Contrivances of the Savages, will be more diligent and successful, in ranging of the Woods; especially if Col. Clapham, who is reckond a very vigilant Gentleman, should soon come up again."[34]
Historical marker on the site of Fort Hunter.

On 7 April, 1756, Governor Morris ordered Clapham to march his regiment to Hunter's Mill to begin construction.[29]: 353 [35] On 11 May, 1756, McKee handed over command of the fort to Colonel Clapham.[29]: 354  The fort probably consisted of a block house surrounded by a defensive ditch. There are references in historic documents to a stockade and to the construction (in January, 1757) of "a Room for the Officers & Barracks for the Soldiers...in Hunters Fort."[29]: 356  It was described as having "a commanding view of the river."[35] Fort Halifax was 160 feet wide with bastions, so Fort Hunter was likely similar in construction, but no drawings or plans exist.[35]

The fort was abandoned and fell into ruins after 1763.[36] The community of Fort Hunter, Pennsylvania was established nearby after 1787.[37]

Dispute with Governor Morris

Clapham's temperament was revealed in May, 1756, when he and several officers stayed with Governor Robert Morris at Harris's Ferry, operated by John Harris Sr. and the future site of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Captain Joseph Shippen later wrote to his father that Governor Morris had made some remarks which offended Clapham, so that Clapham refused to speak to the governor for several days afterward, and eventually saddled his horse with intent to ride away and abandon his troops. Captain Shippen and other officers persuaded Clapham not to leave, and were able to mediate a reconciliation between the two men.[38]: 375–76  Historian William Albert Hunter comments on this event that:

"The Colonel [Clapham] was an obvious target for criticism; a New Englander, self-important in manner, somewhat arbitrary in action, sometimes intemperate in speech, he easily found adversaries who preferred to regard him as a person of limited accomplishments who had risen above his proper station."[29]: 485 

Fort Halifax

On 5 June, 1756, Clapham left Fort Hunter with five companies (400 men), marching north along the Susquehanna River to select a suitable location for Fort Halifax. Clapham and his men marched from Harris's Ferry (present-day Harrisburg, Pennsylvania), while 18 bateaux and canoes loaded with materials traveled down the Susquehanna River, arriving on 11 June to start construction.[3]: 52–61 [30] Clapham picked a site near a large stand of pines which he planned to use for construction, close to a water-powered sawmill on Armstrong Creek. In a June 11 letter to Governor Morris, Clapham noted that the site he chose for the fort was appropriate because of "...the vast Plenty of Pine Timber at Hand, its nearness to Shamokin and a Saw within a Quarter of a Mile." In later correspondence he mentions the complete absence of roads along the river.[39][40][41] The Lenape village of Shamokin had been abandoned a few weeks earlier.[42]: 182 

On 10 June, Clapham held a conference with Oghaghradisha, an Iroquois chief, at Clapham's military camp. Oghaghradisha presented Clapham with a wampum belt and gave Clapham the Iroquois name "Ugcarumhiunth." He told Clapham that

"The Iroquois living on the North Branch of Sasquehanna have lent me as a representative of the whole, to treat with you and will ratify all my contracts. Brother, they agree to your building a Fort at Shamokin, but are desirous that you should also build a Fort three days' journey, in a canoe, higher up the North Branch, in their country, at a place called "Adjouquay" (present-day Pittston, Pennsylvania). If you agree to my proposals on behalf of my nation, I will return and immediately collect our whole force to be employed in protecting your people while you are building a fort in our country...The land is troubled, and you may justly apprehend danger, but if you will grant our request we will be together, and if any danger happens to you, we will share it with you."[43]: 309 

Fort Halifax was a stockade fort 160 feet (49 m) square, with four bastions and surrounding earthworks about 10 feet high. Once finished, it was garrisoned by Pennsylvania Colonial Militia and served as the chief supply post between the area settlements and Shamokin where Fort Augusta would be built later that summer.[33]

The fort was abandoned in late 1757, and was dismantled in mid-1763.[44]

Fort Augusta

Construction

Plan of Fort Augusta on the east bank of the Susquehanna River as it was laid out on June 25, 1756 at the former location of Shamokin.

In June, 1756, Major James Burd finally received sufficient funding and supplies to begin building Fort Augusta at the former site of the Native American village of Shamokin.[33] The fort was positioned so as to prevent Native American war parties from descending the Susquehanna River, to serve as a refuge for civilians under attack, and as a staging area for military expeditions against enemy forces.[45]: 180  The plan of the fort had been previously drawn up by Governor Morris, who wrote to Clapham on 12 June recommending "a square with one ravelin to protect the curtain where the gate is, with a ditch, covered way, and glacis."[3]: 54  In early July, Clapham marched with his troops from Fort Halifax, while the canoes and bateaux carried supplies downriver, encountering numerous falls and rapids which hindered their progress.[3]: 55 [46] On 14 August, Clapham wrote to Governor Morris: "We have the walls of the fort now above-half finished and our other works in such situation that we can make a very good defense against any body of French and Indians that shall seat themselves before us without cannon."[3]: 55 

Clapham had largely completed Fort Augusta by late August 1756.[42]: 488  Named for Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, the mother of King George III, it was the largest British fort built in Pennsylvania, with earthen walls more than two hundred feet long topped by wooden fortifications.[47][48] Buildings included a bakery, smoke house, beef cistern, pork cistern, and a powder magazine with an underground powder keg. The wall facing the river was composed of upright logs, and the rear wall was made up of lengthwise logs. Beyond the main wall was a dry moat that was half as deep as the wall was high. Triangular bastions on each corner permitted a crossfire covering the entire extent of the wall. A well was located in the westernmost bastion. In front of the main gate, a small bridge over the moat could be raised in the event of an attack. Blockhouses connected by a stockade formed a covered way to the river.[49]

Clapham was concerned that the fort would be vulnerable to French assault from the west, if the French were to deploy artillery. On 7 September, 1756, he wrote to Franklin requesting permission to hire another carpenter for additional fortification of the fort's walls:

"If the Government designs to strengthen this Post by doubling the Fort with another Case of Logs and filling up the intermediate Space with Earth in order to render it Cannon Proof which I think ought to be done."[50][3]: 55 

On 8 September, 1756, he wrote to Franklin requesting additional supplies and horses:

"This Post, which is in my Opinion of the utmost Consequence to the Province, is already defensible against all the Power of Musquetry, but as it is from the Nature of its Situation expos’d to a more formidable Descent from the West Branch [of the Susquehanna River]. It ought I think to be render’d still stronger, for which Purpose a greater Number of Horses and Teams are necessary. ’Tis likewise expedient that this Garrison should be supply’d with at least Six Month’s Provisions and Stores equivalent."[51]

In late October, Clapham described the final stages of the fort's construction: "In eight or ten days more the ditch will be carried quite around the parapet, the barrier gates finished and erected, and the pickets of the glacis completed."[3]: 55 

The fort was garrisoned by sixteen officers and 337 men[52] and had twelve cannons and two swivel guns.[53]: 673  It served as base for the Third Battalion, Pennsylvania Regiment of Foot, known as the Augusta Regiment, which was originally formed to build and garrison Fort Augusta.[3][30]

Military actions

In August 1756, Fort Granville was destroyed by French and Indian forces, and soon afterwards Clapham was informed by chief Oghaghradisha that several hundred French and Native American troops had traveled down the Great Shamokin Path to destroy the fort.[3]: 56  This raiding party had been gathered from the French posts at Fort Duquesne, Venango, and Fort Le Boeuf, and the Lenape village of Kittanning, and had assembled at the mouth of Anderson Creek, where they built bateaux to descend the Susquehanna River, bringing with them two or three small brass cannons. They observed Fort Augusta from a distance, however they were too far away for their guns to shoot from the hill opposite the fort. The force then withdrew after deciding that the fort was too well defended.[54][32]: 72 [33]

In November 1756, Clapham informed Deputy Governor William Denny that about fifty miles up the West Branch Susquehanna River was an Indian village with only ten families, located near Great Island (now known as Lock Haven, Pennsylvania). The inhabitants had formerly lived at Shamokin and were reportedly under French influence. Clapham believed that war parties from this village had been ambushing, killing and scalping soldiers and civilians, including the soldier killed in September at Bloody Spring. He ordered a raiding party of 42 men, with Andrew Montour acting as a guide, to destroy the village,[43]: 573 [55]: 285  and instructed the commander, Captain Hambright, "to Kill, Scalp, and capture as many as you can." The raiding party found the village empty, but returned later and destroyed it.[26]: 180–82 

Problems and conflicts

Clapham and his men were dissatisfied when the Commissary General, James Young, arrived in mid-July to deliver their pay, much of which had been withheld. Young wrote to Governor Morris on 18 July:

"At Shamokin the people are extremely uneasy for their pay. The Colonel is highly displeased [that] I had not orders to pay him for his Captain's commission, likewise that I brought no money to pay the Battoe men; he talks loudly of his ill usage and threatens to leave the service; that he will go and join the Six Nations, whether they side with the English or the French."[43]: 321 

Clapham immediately wrote to Governor Morris:

"Besides the duties of my commissions as colonel and captain, [I have] been obliged to discharge those of engineer and overseer at the same time, and undergone in the service incredible fatigues without materials and without thanks. [My] commission...never was yet supposed to include building forts and ten thousand other services which I have performed."[3]: 58 

On 5 August, 1756, Edward Shippen III wrote to his son, Colonel Joseph Shippen, at Shamokin: "You tell me the Colonel [Clapham] frequently says he will soon resign and go to Philadelphia."[56]: 58 

Pay for troops and officers at Fort Augusta was delayed repeatedly, to the point where Clapham was forced to loan most of his salary to men and officers under his command to prevent them from deserting or leaving at the end of their enlistment. Shipments of provisions were frequently late, so that the fort's food supply sometimes dwindled to only one or two days' rations.[49] Clapham had a reputation for being hot-tempered and arbitrary, and often had his subordinate officers arrested and imprisoned for minor infractions, releasing them after a few days without trial. By late 1756, construction projects and daily maintenance tasks were abandoned due to poor morale.[3]: 57–59  On 8 December, Major James Burd took command of the fort.[30]

Resignation, 1757

Clapham resigned his command of the garrison in March, 1757.[57]: 215 [29]: 203  He was evidently an unpopular commander, as suggested by Edward Shippen III in a letter to Major James Burd on 26 March, 1757:

"I congratulate you on the good news: Col. Clapham has resigned, (so Doctor Shippen says,) and if he is pleased you have no cause to be displeased, I am sure. I never doubted his skill in fighting Indians, nor his natural disposition to quarrel with and abuse all mankind. It was always my opinion, that...he was unfit to command a batallion belonging to the king of England."[56]: 72 

On 5 April, Shippen wrote again to Major Burd, commenting on the news that Clapham intended to become a fur trader:

"I am glad you have got so well rid of Clapham as your Colonel, and if the poor fellow should desire a license to set up his trade at your camp, I hope you will grant him the favor; for though he did not understand the business of a commandant, yet he can bring credentials from the Carbuncle, alias Rednosed Club, in Boston, of his skill in hat making; and as he was well recommended by my countrymen as a good wood-ranger, he can never be at a loss for materials to make up...For a man who had not cunning enough to keep a ball at his foot which turned him ~365 per annum, could not be expected to outwit foxes, beavers, and such other sagacious creatures."[56]: 74 

Pittsburgh census, 1761

After assisting in the establishment of frontier forts, Clapham retired from the army[58]: 116  and moved to Pittsburgh in 1760. On 14 April, 1761, Clapham published the first census of the population of Pittsburgh, conducted under the direction of Colonel Henry Bouquet,[59] in which he recorded 104 houses[60]: 22  and a total population of 332 people,[61]: 80  composed of 95 officers, soldiers and their families, and 238 civilians.[62]: 148 

Trading post

Soon afterwards, Clapham entered into an economic venture with Indian trader George Croghan to develop a trading post and a settlement, later referred to as Oswegly Old Town.[63][64] In 1762, he applied for the right to settle on land 18 miles southeast of Fort Pitt, which he had purchased from George Croghan, and his application was approved by Colonel Bouquet and General Robert Monckton.[57]: 215  Clapham cleared his land in February 1763,[65]: 425  and subsequently operated a trading post and extensive plantation where Sewickley Creek enters into the Youghiogheny River (between present-day Sutersville, Pennsylvania and West Newton, Pennsylvania). He and Croghan planned to sell corn, hay, and cattle at Fort Pitt.[63]: 394  He was a well known and respected figure on the trans-Appalachian frontier in Pennsylvania, but unlike his associate George Croghan, he was not trusted by the Ohio Valley tribes.[66]

Death and burial, 1763

Clapham's Trading Post was the site of the first attack in Pennsylvania of Pontiac's Rebellion. On 28 May 1763,[67]: 285, 390  Keekyuscung, his son Wolf, and two other Indians allegedly murdered and scalped Clapham, his wife and child at Clapham's farm on Sewickley Creek.[68]: 84  This was reportedly done in retaliation for the destruction of a Lenape community at Great Island (Lock Haven, Pennsylvania), ordered by Clapham in November, 1756.[67]: 285  Wolf may also have been seeking revenge for having been arrested and imprisoned at Fort Pitt in 1762 on charges of horse theft. He had escaped and plotted his revenge together with his father. Soon after the massacre, Pontiac’s allied tribes in other regions of Pennsylvania captured Fort Presque Isle and laid siege to Fort Pitt.[64]: 237 

William Trent, then Superintendent of Fort Pitt, wrote on 29 May:

"At Break of day this Morning three Men came from Col. Clapham's who was settled at the Oswegly Old Town about 25 Miles from here on the Youghyogeane River, with an account that Col. Clapham, with one of his Men, two women and a child were Merdered by Wolfe and some other Delaware Indians, about two o'clock the day before...The women that were killed at Col. Clapham's were treated in such a brutal manner that Decency forbids the Mentioning."[69]: 394 

An article in The Pennsylvania Gazette on 31 May stated:

"There is most melancholy news here, the Indians have broke out in divers Places and have murdered Colonel Chapman (sic) and his Family; and two of our Men at the Saw-Mill just by the Ford, and scalps taken off each Man."[70]

On 2 May 1764, Colonel Henry Bouquet drew up a series of demands on Native American tribes with whom he was negotiating for peace as part of the 1764 Treaty of Fort Niagara, including "that they deliver up the murderers of Clapham...to be put to death for their Crimes."[71]: 526  Both Keekyuscung and his son Wolf had been killed at the Battle of Bushy Run on 6 August, 1763.[72]

William Clapham is buried in the cemetery at Trinity Cathedral in Pittsburgh.[57]: 215 [73]: 101 

There is a reference to "Captain Clapham" in an early version of the song Yankee Doodle, printed in an undated broadside titled “The Recruiting Officer, Together with Yanky Doodle,” probably published between 1748 and before Clapham completed his service in Canada in 1754:

Here's Father and I, for Canady,
Likewise another Brother,
And Seven more we leave on shore,
For to take Care of Mother.
Tho' I am young I do belong,
To valiant Captain Clapham,
I'll run my Chance and fight the French,
And that’s the Way we’ll nab 'em.[74]: 522 

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Murdoch, A History of Nova-Scotia, Or Acadie, volume II, 1866. J. Barnes, Halifax
  2. 1 2 Hoffer, Peter C. Colonial Women and Domesticity: Selected Articles on Gender in Early America. Garland Pub., 1988.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Herbert C. Bell, History of Northumberland County, Pennsylvania, Chicago: Brown, Runk & Co., 1891
  4. ↑ Officers and Soldiers in the Service of the Province of Pennsylvania, 1744-1765, vol I, Pennsylvania Archives
  5. ↑ Steele, Ian K. Setting All the Captives Free: Capture, Adjustment, and Recollection in Allegheny Country. Canada: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2013.
  6. ↑ "Letter from Capt. Donald Campbell to Col. Henry Bouquet, 4 August, 1762." in Bouquet, H., Kent, D. H., Stevens, S. Kirby., British Library., Pennsylvania Historical Commission., Frontier Forts and Trails Survey. (1940). The papers of Col: Henry Bouquet, vol. 10. Harrisburg: Department of public instruction, Pennsylvania historical commission, p. 42
  7. ↑ Letter from Mary Clapham to Jeffrey Amherst, 25 June, 1763, in Bouquet, H., Kent, D. H., Stevens, S. Kirby., British Library., Pennsylvania Historical Commission., Frontier Forts and Trails Survey. (1940). The papers of Col: Henry Bouquet, vol. 2. Harrisburg: Department of public instruction, Pennsylvania historical commission, pp. 199-200
  8. ↑ "Homicides of Adults in Massachusetts, 1741–1750," Ohio State University
  9. ↑ Barry M. Moody, “GOLDTHWAIT, BENJAMIN,” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 3, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–, accessed June 29, 2022
  10. ↑ Salusbury, John (2011) [1982]. Ronald Rompkey (ed.). Expeditions of Honour: The Journal of John Salusbury in Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1749–53. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-9089-2.
  11. ↑ Wicken, William (2002). Mi'kmaq Treaties on Trial: History, Land, and Donald Marshall Junior. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-7665-6.
  12. ↑ Grenier, John. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760. University of Oklahoma Press, 2014.
  13. ↑ Salusbury, John (2011). Ronald Rompkey (ed.). Expeditions of Honour: The Journal of John Salusbury in Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1749–53. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-7735-3869-6.
  14. ↑ Lee Sultzman, "Micmac History," 03/01/1999
  15. ↑ Cox, Rob S., "John Gorham papers", William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan
  16. ↑ Gentleman's Magazine, August 1751, p. 379
  17. ↑ Andrew Marshall, "What was Father Le Loutre's War? (1749–1755)" Boot Camp and Military Fitness Institute, Feb 17, 201
  18. ↑ Thomas Beamish Akins, History of Halifax City, Nova Scotia Historical Society. Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1895
  19. ↑ "Extract of a Letter from Halifax in Nova Scotia dated June 25, 1751". The London magazine, or, Gentleman's monthly intelligencer. Vol. 20. 1751. p. 341.
  20. ↑ McCormick, Chris; Green, Len, eds. (2005). Crime and Deviance in Canada: Historical Perspectives. Canadian Scholars’ Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-55130-274-4.
  21. ↑ "An Act to Dissolve the Marriage of Mary Clapham with William Clapham," in Clifford, JH, Wheeler, AS, Williamson, WC. The Acts and Resolves, Public and Private, of the Province of the Massachusetts Bay: To which are Prefixed the Charters of the Province. With Historical and Explanatory Notes, and an Appendix. Published Under Chapter 87 of the Resolves of the General Court of the Commonwealth for the Year 1867. Wright & Potter, printers to the state, 1896.
  22. ↑ Waters, John J. The Otis Family in Provincial and Revolutionary Massachusetts. Omohundro Institute and University of North Carolina Press, 2015.
  23. ↑ John F. Crosby, Reply to Myth: Perspectives on Intimacy. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1985.
  24. ↑ Nancy F. Cott, "Divorce and the Changing Status of Women in Eighteenth-Century Massachusetts," The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 33, No. 4, Oct., 1976, pp. 586–614
  25. ↑ Thomas Lynch Montgomery, ed. Pennsylvania Archives: 5th ser. Harrisburg: Harrisburg Publishing Company, State printer, 1906.
  26. 1 2 John Franklin Meginness, "Otzinachson: Or, a History of the West Branch Valley of the Susquehanna ; Embracing a Full Account of Its Settlement—trials and Privations Endured by the Early Pioneers—full Accounts of the Indian Wars, Predatory Incursions, Abductions, and Massacres, &c." in American County Histories: Pennsylvania county and regional histories. H. B. Ashmead, 1857
  27. ↑ Pennsylvania Society of New York. Report of the Commission to Locate the Site of the Frontier Forts of Pennsylvania, Second Edition, Thomas Lynch Montgomery, ed. Harrisburg, 1916
  28. ↑ Benjamin Franklin, The Compleated Autobiography by Benjamin Franklin, Vol. 1: 1706-1757. Mark Skousen, ed. Simon and Schuster: Regnery Publishing, Washington DC, 2007.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hunter, William Albert. Forts on the Pennsylvania Frontier: 1753–1758, (Classic Reprint). Fb&c Limited, 2018.
  30. 1 2 3 4 A Brief History of The Augusta Regiment
  31. ↑ Fort of the French and Indian War: Maps of 18th century forts in Pennsylvania, including Fort Hunter, Fort Halifax, and Fort Augusta.
  32. 1 2 Kaufmann, J. E.., Kaufmann, H. W.. Fortress America: The Forts That Defended America, 1600 to the Present. Hachette Books, 2007.
  33. 1 2 3 4 Clarence M. Busch, Report of the Commission to Locate the Site of the Frontier Forts of Pennsylvania, Vol. 1, State Printer of Pennsylvania, 1896
  34. ↑ "To Benjamin Franklin from Augustus Gottlieb Spangenberg, 8 March 1756," Founders Online, National Archives. Original source: The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 6, April 1, 1755, through September 30, 1756, ed. Leonard W. Labaree. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1963, pp. 423–424.
  35. 1 2 3 James Herbstritt, Janet Johnson and Kurt Carr, "Digging Fort Hunter’s History," Pennsylvania Heritage," Fall 2011
  36. ↑ Fort Hunter historical marker, The Historical Marker Database
  37. ↑ Fort Hunter Mansion and Park, history
  38. ↑ Joseph Shippen, "Military Letters of Captain Joseph Shippen of the Provincial Service, 1756–1758," The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 36, No. 3 (1912), pp. 367–378
  39. ↑ Rasmussen, Amanda 2015 "An Analysis of Archaeological Remains at Fort Halifax Park." MA Thesis, Department of Anthropology, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
  40. ↑ Fort Halifax Park
  41. ↑ Joe Baker and Amanda Rasmussen, "Archaeology at Fort Halifax Park," Series Article: Part 2
  42. 1 2 Hunter, William Albert. Forts on the Pennsylvania Frontier: 1753–1758, (Classic Reprint). Fb&c Limited, 2018.
  43. 1 2 3 Rupp, Israel Daniel. The History and Topography of Dauphin, Cumberland, Franklin, Bedford, Adams, and Perry Counties (Pennsylvania): Containing a Brief History of the First Settlers, Notices of the Leading Events, Incidents and Interesting Facts, Both General and Local, in the History of These Counties, General & Statistical Descriptions of All the Principal Boroughs, Towns, Villages, &c., with an Appendix, G. Hills, 1846.
  44. ↑ "Fort Halifax, Pennsylvania," Legends of America
  45. ↑ Waddell, Louis M. "Defending the Long Perimeter: Forts on the Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia. Frontier, 1755-1765.” Pennsylvania History, 62:2(1995):171-195.
  46. ↑ Katharine Faull, "Charting the Colonial Backcountry: Joseph Shippen's Map of the Susquehanna River," The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol CXXXVI October 2012 No. 4, pp. 461-465
  47. ↑ Tucker, Spencer. The Encyclopedia of North American Colonial Conflicts to 1775: A–K. ABC-CLIO, 2008.
  48. ↑ James Herbstritt, Janet Johnson and Kurt Carr, "Digging Fort Hunter’s History," Pennsylvania Heritage, Fall 2011
  49. 1 2 Katherine Faull, "Fort Augusta," (page 2) in Sunbury: A History, Bucknell Environmental Center, Lewisburg, PA
  50. ↑ "To Benjamin Franklin from William Clapham, 7 September 1756," Founders Online, National Archives, . Original source: The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 6, April 1, 1755, through September 30, 1756, ed. Leonard W. Labaree. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1963, pp. 500–501.
  51. ↑ "To Benjamin Franklin from William Clapham, 8 September 1756," Founders Online, National Archives. Original source: The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 6, April 1, 1755, through September 30, 1756, ed. Leonard W. Labaree. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1963, pp. 501–502.
  52. ↑ "Sunbury: A History," Bucknell University Environmental Center
  53. ↑ Roberts, Robert B., Encyclopedia of Historic Forts: the military, pioneer, and trading posts of the United States, New York: Macmillan, 1988
  54. ↑ "Fort Augusta – 1756," Society of Colonial Wars of Pennsylvania
  55. ↑ C. Hale Sipe, The Indian chiefs of Pennsylvania, or, A story of the part played by the American Indian in the history of Pennsylvania: based primarily on the Pennsylvania archives and colonial records, and built around the outstanding chiefs Ziegler Printing Co., Inc. Butler, PA, 1927
  56. 1 2 3 Balch, Thomas, and Shippen, Edward, Letters and papers relating chiefly to the provincial history of Pennsylvania, with some notices of the writers, 1729–1806. Philadelphia: Crissy & Markley, printers, 1855.
  57. 1 2 3 Charles Dahlinger, "Pittsburgh's First Burial Ground," in The Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine, vol 2, no. 1. Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania., 1919.
  58. ↑ William Brewster, The Pennsylvania and New York Frontier: History of from 1720 to the Close of the Revolution, Philadelphia: George S. McManus Co., 1954
  59. ↑ "A List of Houses and Inhabitants at Fort Pitt, 14 April, 1761." in Bouquet, H., Kent, D. H., Stevens, S. Kirby., British Library., Pennsylvania Historical Commission., Frontier Forts and Trails Survey. (1940). The papers of Col: Henry Bouquet, vol. 7. Harrisburg: Department of public instruction, Pennsylvania historical commission, pp 103-108
  60. ↑ William G. Johnston, "Life and Reminiscences from Birth to Manhood of William G. Johnston," New York: The Knickerbocker Press, 1901
  61. ↑ Chapman, Thomas Jefferson, Old Pittsburgh Days. J. R. Weldin & Company, 1900.
  62. ↑ Bausman, Joseph Henderson. History of Beaver County, Pennsylvania: And Its Centennial Celebration. Knickerbocker Press, 1904.
  63. 1 2 A. T. Volwiler, "William Trent's Journal at Fort Pitt, 1763," The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,Vol. 11, No. 3 Dec., 1924, pp. 390–413
  64. 1 2 Dixon, David. Never Come to Peace Again: Pontiac's Uprising and the Fate of the British Empire in North America. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014. ISBN 9780806145013
  65. ↑ Richard L. Blanco, ed. The American Revolution 1775–1783: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1: A–L. Taylor & Francis, 2020.
  66. ↑ Dylan Haney, "My Responsibility: In the Shadow of the King, Pontiac Stands Against the Tide of British Empire"
  67. 1 2 C. Hale Sipe, The Indian Chiefs of Pennsylvania, Ziegler Printing Co., Inc. Butler, PA, 1927
  68. ↑ Middleton, Richard. Pontiac's War: Its Causes, Course and Consequences. Taylor & Francis, 2012.
  69. ↑ A. T. Volwiler, "Notes and Documents: William Trent's Journal at Fort Pitt, 1763," The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. XI, No. 3. Mississippi Valley Historical Association, 1925
  70. ↑ Armand Francis Lucier, ed. Pontiac's Conspiracy & Other Indian Affairs: Notices Abstracted from Colonial Newspapers, 1763–1765. Heritage Books, 2000.
  71. ↑ Montrésor, John, Montrésor, James Gabriel. "The Montresor Journals," in Collections of the New York Historical Society for the Year 1881, New York, 1882.
  72. ↑ Cyrus Cort, Col. Henry Bouquet and His Campaigns of 1763 and 1764, Bouquet Memorial Committee. Steinman & Hensel, printers, 1883
  73. ↑ Elkin, C. W. W., "Remarks on some old cemeteries of the Pittsburgh region," Western Pennsylvania History, v. 38, 1955; p. 95–110.
  74. ↑ Zelnik, E. "Yankees, Doodles, Fops, and Cuckolds: Compromised Manhood and Provincialism in the Revolutionary Period, 1740–1781." Early American Studies, vol. 16, no. 3 (2018): 514–44
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