Justice and Divine Vengeance Pursuing Crime by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon, c. 1805–1808

Revenge is committing a harmful action against a person or group in response to a grievance, be it real[1] or perceived.[2] Primitive justice or retributive justice is often differentiated from more formal and refined forms of justice such as distributive justice and divine judgment.

Function in society

Engraving by Gustave Doré illustrating the Erinyes, chthonic deities of vengeance and death
Shakespeare's Hamlet tells a history in which a man avenged the murder of his father by killing his uncle.[3] Artist: Gustave Moreau.

Social psychologist Ian Mckee states that the desire for the sustenance of power motivates vengeful behavior as a means of impression management: "People who are more vengeful tend to be those who are motivated by power, by authority and by the desire for status. They don't want to lose face".[4][5]

Vengeful behavior has been found across a majority of human societies.[6] Some societies encourage vengeful behavior, which is called a feud.[7] These societies usually regard the honor of individuals and groups as of central importance. Thus, while protecting of their reputation an avenger feels as if they restore the previous state of dignity and justice. According to Michael Ignatieff, "Revenge is a profound moral desire to keep faith with the dead, to honor their memory by taking up their cause where they left off".[8] Thus, honor may become a heritage that passes from generation to generation. Whenever it is compromised, the affected family or community members might feel compelled to retaliate against an offender to restore the initial "balance of honor" that preceded the perceived injury. This cycle of honor might expand by bringing the family members and then the entire community of the new victim into the brand-new cycle of revenge that may pervade generations.[9]

History

German announcement of killing 2300 civilians in Kragujevac massacre as retaliation for 10 killed German soldiers. Nazi-occupied Serbia, 1941.

Francis Bacon described revenge as a kind of "wild justice" that "does [..]. offend the law [and] putteth the law out of office."[10]

Feuds are cycles of provocation and retaliation, fueled by a desire for revenge and carried out over long periods of time by familial or tribal groups. They were an important part of many pre-industrial societies, especially in the Mediterranean region. They still persist in some areas, notably in Albania with its tradition of gjakmarrja or "blood feuds".[11]

Blood feuds are still practised in many parts of the world, including Kurdish regions of Turkey and in Papua New Guinea.[12][13]

In Japan, honouring one's family, clan, or lord through the practice of revenge killings is called "katakiuchi" (敵討ち). These killings could also involve the relatives of an offender. Today, katakiuchi is most often pursued by peaceful means, but revenge remains an important part of Japanese culture.[14]

Social psychology

Philosophers tend to believe that to punish and to take revenge are vastly different activities:[15] "One who undertakes to punish rationally does not do so for the sake of the wrongdoing, which is now in the past - but for the sake of the future, that the wrongdoing shall not be repeated, either by him, or by others who see him, or by others who see him punished".[16] Whereas, to seek revenge is motivated by a yearning to see a transgressor suffer; revenge is necessarily preceded by anger, whereas punishment doesn't have to be.[17]

Indeed, Kaiser, Vick, and Major point out the following: "An important psychological implication of the various efforts to define revenge is that there is no objective standard for declaring an act to be motivated by revenge or not. Revenge is a label that is ascribed based on perceivers’ attributions for the act. Revenge is an inference, regardless of whether the individuals making the inference are the harmdoers themselves, the injured parties, or outsiders. Because revenge is an inference, various individuals can disagree on whether the same action is revenge or not."[17]

Belief in a just-world hypothesis is also associated with revenge: in particular, having strong experiences or challenges against , can increase distress and motivate individuals to seek revenge, as a means of justice restoration.[18]

A growing body of research reveals that a vengeful disposition is correlated to adverse health outcomes: strong desires for revenge and greater willingness to act on these desires have been correlated with post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and psychiatric morbidity.[19]

Proverbs

The popular expression "revenge is a dish best served cold" suggests that revenge is more satisfying if enacted when unexpected or long feared, inverting traditional civilized revulsion toward "cold-blooded" violence.[20]

The idea's origin is obscure. The French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (1754–1838) has been credited with the saying, "La vengeance est un met que l'on doit manger froid" ["Revenge is a dish that must be eaten cold"], albeit without supporting detail.[21] It has been in the English language at least since the 1846 translation of the 1845 French novel Mathilde by Joseph Marie Eugène Sue: "la vengeance se mange très bien froide",[22] there italicized as if quoting a proverbial saying, and translated "revenge is very good eaten cold".[23] It has been wrongly credited[24] to the novel Les Liaisons Dangereuses (1782).

The phrase has also been credited to the Pashtuns of Afghanistan.[25]

A Japanese proverb states, "If you want revenge, then dig two graves". This reference is frequently misunderstood by Western audiences however, the Japanese reader understands this proverb to mean that the attacker is so dedicated to killing their enemy, that living is less important than the killing of their enemy.[26]

In art

Igagoe buyuden. This is an episode from a popular story of revenge – how the son of a murdered samurai tracked the killer over all Japan.

Revenge is a popular subject across many forms of art. Some examples include the painting Herodias' Revenge by Juan de Flandes and the operas Don Giovanni and The Marriage of Figaro, both by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. In Japanese art, revenge is a theme in various woodblock prints depicting the forty-seven rōnin by many well-known and influential artists, including Utagawa Kuniyoshi. The Chinese playwright Ji Junxiang used revenge as the central theme in his theatrical work The Orphan of Zhao;[27] it depicts more specifically familial revenge, which is placed in the context of Confucian morality and social hierarchical structure.[28]

In literature

Revenge has been a popular literary theme historically and continues to play a role in contemporary works.[29] Examples of literature that feature revenge as a theme include the plays Hamlet and Othello by William Shakespeare, the novel The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas, and the short story "The Cask of Amontillado" by Edgar Allan Poe. More modern examples include the novels Carrie by Stephen King, Gone Girl by Gillian Flynn, and The Princess Bride by William Goldman. Although revenge is a theme in itself, it is also considered to be a genre.[30]

Revenge as a genre has been consistent with a variety of themes that have frequently appeared in different texts over the last few centuries. Such themes include but are not limited to: disguise, masking, sex, cannibalism, the grotesque, bodily fluids, power, violent murders, and secrecy.[31] Each theme is usually coupled with the concept of dramatic irony. Dramatic irony is a literary device in which the audience possesses knowledge unavailable to characters in a novel, play, or film.[32] Its purpose is to intensify the tragic events that are going to unfold by creating tension between the audience and the actions of the characters.[32]

The most common theme within the genre of revenge is the recurring violent murders that take place throughout the text, especially in the final act or scene. The root of the violence is usually derived from the characters' childhood development.[33]

The themes of masking and disguise have the ability to go hand in hand with each other. A character may employ disguise literally or metaphorically. A mask is the literal example of this theme; while pretending to be something one is not is considered to be the metaphoric example. Additional themes that may cause the protagonist and antagonist to develop a masked or disguised identity include sex, power, and even cannibalism. Examples of sex and power being used as themes can be seen in the novel Gone Girl by Gillian Flynn, as well as the already mentioned drama, Titus Andronicus.[34]

On the internet

The emergence of the internet has provided new ways of exacting revenge.[35] Customer revenge targets businesses and corporations with the intent to cause damage or harm.[36] In general, people tend to place more credence in online reviews rather than corporate communications.[35] With technology becoming more readily available, corporations and firms are more likely to experience damage caused by negative reviews posted online going viral. Recent studies indicate this type of consumer rage is becoming more common, especially in Western societies.[37]

The rise of social media sites like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube act as public platforms for exacting new forms of revenge.[35] Revenge porn involves the public dissemination of intimate pictures and videos of another person's sexual activity out of motives for revenge with the intent of creating widespread shame.[38] Participation in online revenge porn activities incites a sense of pleasure through the harm being caused. The allowance of anonymity on revenge porn sites encourages further incivility by empowering and encouraging this type of behavior.[39] In many instances, the original poster provides the victim's personal information, including links to social media accounts.[38] Online revenge porn's origins can be traced to 2010 when Hunter Moore created the first site, IsAnyoneUp, to share nude photos of his girlfriend.[39]

In animals

Humans are not the only species known to take revenge. There are several species such as camels, elephants, fish, lions,[40] coots,[41] crows, and many species of primates (chimpanzees, macaques, baboons, etc.) that have been recognized to seek revenge. Primatologists Frans de Waal and Lesleigh Luttrellave conducted numerous studies that provide evidence of revenge in many species of primates. They observed chimpanzees and noticed patterns of revenge. For example, if chimpanzee A helped chimpanzee B defeat his opponent, chimpanzee C, then chimpanzee C would be more likely to help chimpanzee A's opponent in a later squabble. Chimpanzees are one of the most common species that show revenge due to their desire for dominance. Studies have also been performed on less cognitive species such as fish to demonstrate that not only intellectual animals execute revenge.[42]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Daladier, Edouard (1995). Daladier, Jean (ed.). "Prison Journal, 1940-1945". Westview Press, 1995: 63 – via ISBN 0813319056, 9780813319056. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ↑ "revenge | Definition of revenge in English by Lexico Dictionaries". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on 2020-11-11. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  3. ↑ The Killing Scene: Hamlet 5.2.303–309.
  4. ↑ Michael Price (June 2009). Revenge and the people who seek it. Vol. 40. apa.org. p. Print version: page 34. Archived from the original on 20 November 2010. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
  5. ↑ Ian McKee, PhD. 2008. Social Justice Research (Vol. 138, No. 2)
  6. ↑ Ericksen, Karen Paige; Horton, Heather (1992). ""Blood Feuds": Cross-Cultural Variations in Kin Group Vengeance". Behavior Science Research. 26 (1–4): 57–85. doi:10.1177/106939719202600103. S2CID 144360011.
  7. ↑ Richard, McClelland (Summer 2010). "The Pleasures of Revenge". The Journal of Mind and Behavior. 31 (3/4): 196. JSTOR 43854277.
  8. ↑ Brandon Hamber and Richard A. Wilson, Symbolic Closure through Memory, Reparation and Revenge in Post-conflict Societies (Johannesburg: Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, 1999).
  9. ↑ Helena Yakovlev-Golani (2012). "Revenge - the Volcano of Despair: The Story of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict". Exploring the Facets of Revenge. p. 83. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2013-05-18.
  10. ↑ "Sir Francis Bacon "On Revenge"". rjgeib.com. Archived from the original on 2012-10-08. Retrieved 2012-10-08.
  11. ↑ "Peacemaker breaks the ancient grip of Albania's blood feuds Archived 2016-11-23 at the Wayback Machine". The Christian Science Monitor June 24, 2008
  12. ↑ "Blood feuds and gun violence plague Turkey's southeast Archived 2019-11-29 at the Wayback Machine". Reuters. May 5, 2009
  13. ↑ "Deadly twist to PNG's tribal feuds Archived 2008-12-18 at the Wayback Machine". BBC News. August 25, 2005
  14. ↑ Mills, D. E. (1976). "Kataki-Uchi: The Practice of Blood-Revenge in Pre-Modern Japan". Modern Asian Studies. 10 (4): 525–542. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00014943. S2CID 145215338.
  15. ↑ Flew, Antony (1954). "The Justification of Punishment". Philosophy. 29 (111): 291–307. doi:10.1017/S0031819100067152. JSTOR 3748210. S2CID 144047901.
  16. ↑ Plato. Protagoras. p. 324. Archived from the original on 2019-12-17. Retrieved 2019-12-17.
  17. 1 2 Schumann, Karina (2010). "The Benefits, Costs, and Paradox of Revenge". Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 4 (12): 1193. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00322.x.
  18. ↑ Kaiser, Cheryl (2004). "A Prospective Investigation of the Relationship Between Just-World Beliefs and the Desire for Revenge After September 11, 2001" (PDF). Psychological Science. 15 (7): 503–506. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00709.x. PMID 15200637. S2CID 34309813. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  19. ↑ Cardozo, Barbara (2000). "Mental health, social functioning, and attitudes of Kosovar ns following the war in Kosovo" (PDF). JAMA. 16 (5): 569–77. doi:10.1001/jama.284.5.569. PMID 10918702. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 September 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  20. ↑ Jennifer Speake, ed. (2008). Concise Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs, 5th Ed. Oxford University Press. p. 576. ISBN 9780191580017. Archived from the original on 1 January 2014. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  21. ↑ Le Dictionnaire Marabout des pensées des auteurs du monde entier. Verviers: Gérard & Co. 1969.
  22. ↑ Eugène Sue (1845). Mathilde: mémoires d'une jeune femme. Welter. p. 148. Archived from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
  23. ↑ Marie Joseph Eugène Sue (1846). The orphan; or, Memoirs of Matilda, tr. [from Mathilde] by the hon. D.G. Osborne. p. 303.
  24. ↑ "The meaning and origin of the expression: Revenge is a dish best served cold". Archived from the original on 23 October 2013. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
  25. ↑ Fergusson, James (2011). Taliban: The Unknown Enemy. Da Capo Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-306-82034-2.
  26. ↑ Mieder, Wolfgang (1992). A Dictionary of American Proverbs. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 430. ISBN 9780195053999. Archived from the original on 2022-01-25. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
  27. ↑ Liu, Wu-Chi (1953). "The Original Orphan of China". Comparative Literature. 5 (3): 193–212. doi:10.2307/1768912. JSTOR 1768912.
  28. ↑ Shi, Fei (2009). "Tragic Ways of Killing a Child: Staging Violence and Revenge in Classical Greek and Chinese Drama". In Constantinidis, Stratos E. (ed.). Text & presentation, 2008. Jefferson: McFarland. p. 175. ISBN 9780786443666.
  29. ↑ C. Armstrong, W. Bright, Collitz, Marden, Edward, James, Hermann, C. Carroll (1911). "MLN, Volume 26". MLN. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1911. 26: 115–116.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ↑ Marguerite, Tassi (September 22, 2012). "Women and Revenge in Shakespeare: Gender, Genre, and Ethics". Renaissance Quarterly.
  31. ↑ Grobbink, Leonie (July 2015). "Revenge: An Analysis of Its Psychological Underpinnings". International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology. 59 (8): 892–907. doi:10.1177/0306624X13519963. PMID 24441031. S2CID 220490026.
  32. 1 2 Rholetter, Wylene (January 2015). "Dramatic Irony". Research Starters. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Literature.
  33. ↑ Bloom, Sandra (2001). "Reflections on the Desire for Revenge". Center for Nonviolence and Social Justice. Journal of Emotional Abuse. Archived from the original on 2015-12-09. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
  34. ↑ Willbern, David. "Rape and Revenge in "Titus Andronicus"". English Literary Renaissance. 8.
  35. 1 2 3 Obeidat, Zaid. "Consumer Revenge Using the Internet and Social Media: An Examination of the Role of Service Failure Types and Cognitive Appraisal Processes". Psychology & Marketing.
  36. ↑ Grégoire, Yany. "A comprehensive model of customer direct and indirect revenge: understanding the effects of perceived greed and customer power". Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science.
  37. ↑ Grégoire, Yany. "How can firms stop customer revenge? The effects of direct and indirect revenge on post-complaint responses". Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science.
  38. 1 2 Langlois, G.; Slane, A. (2017). "Economies of reputation: the case of revenge porn". Communication & Critical/Cultural Studies. 14 (2): 120–138. doi:10.1080/14791420.2016.1273534. S2CID 151732727.
  39. 1 2 Stroud, S. R. (2014). "The Dark Side of the Online Self: A Pragmatist Critique of the Growing Plague of Revenge Porn". Journal of Mass Media Ethics. 29 (3): 168–183. doi:10.1080/08900523.2014.917976. S2CID 143979919.
  40. ↑ Mills, M. G. L. (1991). "Conservation management of large carnivores in Africa". Koedoe. 34 (1): 81–90. doi:10.4102/koedoe.v34i1.417.
  41. ↑ Horsfall, J.A. (1984). "Brood reduction and brood division in coots". Animal Behaviour. 32: 216–225. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(84)80340-1. S2CID 53152664.
  42. ↑ McCullough, Michael (2008). Beyond Revenge : The Evolution of the Forgiveness Instinct. Jossey-Bass. pp. 79–85. ISBN 9780787977566.

Further reading

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