Canada population density map (2014)
Two-colour map of Windsor area with towns along the St. Lawrence river
The Quebec City–Windsor Corridor is the most densely populated and heavily industrialized region of Canada, spanning 1,200 kilometres (750 miles).[1]

Canada ranks 37th by population among countries of the world, comprising about 0.5% of the world's total,[2] with 40 million Canadians as of 2023.[3][4] Being, however, the second-largest country by area (fourth-largest by land area), the vast majority of the country is sparsely inhabited, with most of its population south of the 55th parallel north and just over 60 per cent of Canadians live in just two provinces: Ontario and Quebec. Though Canada's overall population density is low, many regions in the south, such as the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, have population densities higher than several European countries. Canada has six population centres with more than one million people: Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton and Ottawa.

The large size of Canada's north, which is not at present arable, and thus cannot support large human populations, significantly lowers the country's carrying capacity. In 2021, the population density of Canada was 4.2 people per square kilometre.[5] As contrast, Russia's similar figure was 8.4 people per square kilometre.

The historical growth of Canada's population is complex and has been influenced in many different ways, such as Indigenous populations, expansion of territory, and human migration. Immigration has been, and remains, the most important factor in Canada's population growth.[6] The 2021 Canadian census counted a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 per cent over the 2016 figure.[7][8] Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 per cent overall growth.[9]

Historical population overview

Indigenous Population History in Canada
YearPop.±%
1871102,358—    
1881108,547+6.0%
1901127,941+17.9%
1911105,611−17.5%
1921114,083+8.0%
1931128,890+13.0%
1941160,937+24.9%
1951165,607+2.9%
1961220,121+32.9%
1971312,765+42.1%
1981491,460+57.1%
1986711,725+44.8%
19911,016,340+42.8%
1996799,010−21.4%
2001976,305+22.2%
20061,172,790+20.1%
20111,400,690+19.4%
20161,673,785+19.5%
20211,807,250+8.0%
Source: Statistics Canada
[10][11][12]: 5&6 [13]: 3 [14]: 1 [15]: 17 [16][17][18][19][20][21]
Note: Population decline between 1991 and 1996 censuses attributed to change in criteria in census count; "the 1996 Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples used a more restrictive definition of Aboriginal".[22]

Indigenous peoples

Scholars vary on the estimated size of the indigenous population in what is now Canada prior to colonization and on the effects of European contact.[23] During the late 15th century is estimated to have been between 200,000[24] and two million,[25] with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health.[26] Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[27] However repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity),[28] combined with other effects of European contact, resulted in a twenty-five per cent to eighty per cent indigenous population decrease post-contact.[24] Roland G Robertson suggests that during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot (Huron), who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in the area of New France.[29] In 1871 there was an enumeration of the indigenous population within the limits of Canada at the time, showing a total of only 102,358 individuals.[10] From 2006 to 2016, the Indigenous population has grown by 42.5 per cent, four times the national rate.[30] According to the 2011 Canadian Census, indigenous peoples (First Nations – 851,560, Inuit – 59,445 and Métis – 451,795) numbered at 1,400,685, or 4.3% of the country's total population.[31]

New France

The European population grew slowly under French rule,[32] thus remained relatively low as growth was largely achieved through natural births, rather than by immigration.[33] Most of the French were farmers, and the rate of natural increase among the settlers themselves was very high.[34] The women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France.[35] Yves Landry says, "Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time."[35] The 1666 census of New France was the first census conducted in North America.[36] It was organized by Jean Talon, the first Intendant of New France, between 1665 and 1666.[36] According to Talon's census there were 3,215 people in New France, comprising 538 separate families.[37] The census showed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women.[37] By the early 1700s the New France settlers were well established along the Saint Lawrence River and Acadian Peninsula with a population around 15,000 to 16,000.[38] Mainly due to natural increase and modest immigration from Northwest France (Brittany, Normandy, Île-de-France, Poitou-Charentes and Pays de la Loire) the population of New France increased to 55,000 according to the last French census of 1754.[39] This was an increase from 42,701 in 1730.[40]

British Canada

Distribution of the population in Canada for the years 1851, 1871, 1901, 1921 and 1941

During the late 18th and early 19th century Canada under British rule experienced strong population growth. In the wake of the 1775 invasion of Canada by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, approximately 60,000 of the 80,000 Americans loyal to the Crown, designated later as United Empire Loyalists fled to British North America, a large portion of whom migrated to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick (separated from Nova Scotia) in 1784.[41] Although the exact numbers cannot be certain because of unregistered migration[42] At least 20,000 went to Nova Scotia, 14,000 to New Brunswick; 1,500 to PEI and 6,000 to Ontario(13,000 including 5,000 blacks went to England and 5,500 to the Caribbean). For the rest of the 1780s additional immigrants arrived from the south. From 1791 An additional 30,000 Americans, called "Late Loyalists", were lured into Ontario in the 1790s by the promise of land and swearing loyalty to the Crown.[43] As a result of the period known as the Great Migration by 1831, Lower Canada's population had reached approximately 553,000, with Upper Canada reaching about 237,000 individuals.[44] The Great Famine of Ireland of the 1840s had significantly increased the pace of Irish immigration to Prince Edward Island and the Province of Canada, peaking in 1847 with 100,000 distressed individuals.[45] By 1851, the population of the Maritime colonies also reached roughly 533,000 (277,000 in Nova Scotia, 194,000 in New Brunswick and 62,000 in Prince Edward Island).[46] To the west British Columbia had about 55,000 individuals by 1851.[46] Beginning in the late 1850s, the immigration of Chinese into the Colony of Vancouver Island and Colony of British Columbia peaked with the onset of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush.[47] By 1861, as a result of natural births and the Great Migration of Canada from the British Isles, the Province of Canada population increased to 3.1 million inhabitants.[46] Newfoundland's population by 1861 reached approximately 125,000 individuals.[46]

Post-confederation

The population has increased every year since the establishment of the Dominion of Canada in 1867; however, the population of Newfoundland was not included prior to its entry into confederation as Canada's tenth province in 1949.[48][49] The first national census of the country was taken in 1871, with a population count around 3,689,000.[50] The year with the least population growth (in real terms) was 1882–1883, when only 30,000 new individuals were enumerated.[49]

Births and immigration in Canada from 1850 to 2000

The 1911 census was a detailed enumeration of the population showing a count of 7,206,643 individuals.[51] This was an increase of 34% over the 1901 census of 5,371,315.[52] The year with the most population growth was during the peak of the Post-World War II baby boom in 1956–1957, when the population grew by over 529,000, in a single twelve-month period.[49] The Canadian baby boom, defined as the period from 1947 to 1966, saw more than 400,000 babies born annually.[53] The 1996 census recorded a total population of 28,846,761.[54] This was a 5.7% increase over the 1991 census of 27,296,859.[54] The 2001 census had a total population count of 30,007,094.[55] In contrast, the official Statistics Canada population estimate for 2001 was 31,021,300.[56]

Canada's total population enumerated by the 2006 census was 31,612,897.[57] This count was lower than the official 1 July 2006 population estimate of 32,623,490 people.[57] Ninety per cent of the population growth between 2001 and 2006 was concentrated in the main metropolitan areas.[58] The 2011 census was the fifteenth decennial census with a total population count of 33,476,688 up 5.9% from 2006. On average, censuses have been taken every five years since 1905. Censuses are required to be taken at least every ten years as mandated in section 8 of the Constitution Act, 1867.[59]

Components of population growth

A population estimate for 2022 put the total number of people in Canada at 38,232,593.[60]

Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.[61]

  • One birth every 1 minute
  • One death every 2 minutes
  • One net migrant every 2 minutes
  • Net gain of one person every 2 minutes
Canada's fertility rate from 1929 to 2019. The rate fell below two in the 1970s.

In 2010, Canada's annual population growth rate was 1.238%, or a daily increase of 1,137 individuals.[49] Between 1867 and 2009 Canada's population grew by 979%.[49] Canada had the highest net migration rate (0.61%) of all G-8 member countries between 1994 and 2004.[49] Natural growth accounts for an annual increase of 137,626 persons, at a yearly rate of 0.413%.[49] Between 2001 and 2006, there were 1,446,080 immigrants and 237,418 emigrants, resulting in a net migration of just over 1.2 million people.[49] Since 2001 until 2010, immigration has ranged between 221,352 and 262,236 immigrants per annum.[62]

In 2023, Canada's population jumped by over 1 million people for the first time in the country's history. The population now stands at 39.5 million and is set to pass the 40 million mark later this year. The population growth has largely been fuelled by migrants who have been brought into the country to ease labour shortages.[63]

Population by years

Prior to Canadian confederation in 1867 the population counts reflected only the former colonies and settlements and not the country to be as a whole with indigenous nations separated.[64]

Ephemeral European settlements

Year Area/colony Population Notes[65]
1000L'Anse aux Meadows
(Newfoundland)		30 to 160Archaeological evidence of a short-lived Norse settlement was found at L'Anse aux Meadows, on the northernmost tip of the island of Newfoundland (carbon dating estimate 990–1050 AD.[66]) There is no record of how many men and women lived at the site at any given time, however archaeological evidence of the dwellings suggest it had the capacity of supporting 30 to 160 individuals.[67]
1541Cap-Rouge
(Quebec City)		400Jacques Cartier established Charlesbourg-Royal at Cap-Rouge on his third voyage. Even though scurvy was cured through the indigenous remedy (Thuja occidentalis infusion), the impression left is of a general misery with the effort being abandoned.[68] During the winter 35 of Cartier's men perished.[68]
1543Cap-Rouge
(Quebec City)		200In 1542, Jean-François Roberval tried to re-invigorate the Charlesbourg-Royal colony at Cap-Rouge which Roberval renamed France-Roy, however after a set of disastrous winters the effort was abandoned.[69] En route to Charlesbourg-Royal, Roberval had abandoned his near-relative Marguerite de La Rocque with her lover on the "Isle of Demons" (now called Harrington Island), in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, as punishment for their affair.[70] The young man, their servant and baby died, but Marguerite survived to be rescued by fishermen and returned to France two years later.[70]
1583St. John Bay
(Newfoundland)		260Humphrey Gilbert with 260 men planned a settlement; however, during exploration of the coast line a ship was lost containing many of the prospective colonists and their provisions.[71]
1598Sable Island
(Nova Scotia)		50Marquis de La Roche-Mesgouez and 40 convicts (peasants and beggars) with 10 soldiers settled on Sable Island, but this colonization attempt failed, culminating in a revolt with only 11 survivors evacuated.[72][73]
1600Tadoussac
(Quebec)		16François Gravé Du Pont with 16 men built a fur trading post at Tadoussac; however, only five of the men survived the winter before returning to France.[73]
1604Saint Croix
(Maine)		79The St. Croix settlement of Maine was the first real attempt at a year-round base of operation in New France. The expedition was led by Pierre Du Gua de Monts with 79 settlers including François Gravé Du Pont, Royal cartographer Samuel de Champlain, the Baron de Poutrincourt, apothecary Louis Hébert, a priest Nicolas Aubry, and Mathieu de Costa a linguist.[74] The St. Croix settlement was abandoned the following summer for a new habitation at Port-Royal after 35 died of scurvy.[75]

Former colonies and territories

17th century

Year Area/colony Population[76][77] Notes[64]
1605Port Royal
(Nova Scotia)		44The 44 colonists are surviving members of 79 from the now abandoned St. Croix settlement of Maine.[73] However, the habitation at Port-Royal was also abandoned and left in the care of the local Mi'kmaq.[75] The settlement was later moved upstream and to the south bank of the Annapolis River, keeping the name Port-Royal and becoming the capital of Acadia.[78]
1608Quebec City28Samuel de Champlain establishes the colony with 28 settlers.[73] Half of the men that winter the first year die of scurvy or starvation.[79] Nevertheless, new settlers arrive resulting in Quebec being the first permanent settlement, and also the capital of, the French colony of Canada.
1610Cuper's Cove
(Newfoundland)		40The Newfoundland Colony is established by John Guy his brother Phillip and his brother-in-law William Colston with 39 colonists who spend the winter of 1610–1611 at Cuper's Cove.[80] By the fall of 1613 sixteen structures are completed by about 60 settlers on the site.[81][82] As England tried to create a foothold in the north, other settlements were established at Bristol's Hope, Renews, New Cambriol, South Falkland and Avalon, an area that became known as the English Shore. However the majority of the population did not stay year round returning in the spring of each year. Over the next 100 years the English colonies of Newfoundland grew very slowly, and had only 3,000 permanent residents by the 1720s.[83]
1629Quebec city117*90 wintering belonged to Kirke's English Expedition that had captured the city.[84] Under brief British control the city begins to grow and be fortified.[85] Prior to 1632 only eight births were recorded among the 60 to 70 permanent European settlers.[85][86] The first European child born in Quebec had been Hélène Desportes, in 1620.[87]
1641New France240De facto population of Canada (New France) and Acadia, now situated partly in the future United States.[86]
1642Fort Ville-Marie
(Old Montreal)		50New colony with the majority of immigrants coming directly from France led by Paul de Chomedey and Jeanne Mance, a lay woman.[88]
1666Canada (New France)3,215The 1660s marked the only real "wave" of French settlers arriving until the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.[89] Following the initial wave of French settlers natural growth was the main contributing factor to population growth.[85] Quebec city 2,100, Trois-Rivières 455, Montreal 655. (Comprising 528 families with 2,034 men and 1,181 women. Professionals included 3 notaries, 3 schoolmasters, 3 locksmiths, 4 bailiffs, 5 surgeons, 5 bakers, 8 barrel makers, 9 millers, 18 official merchants, 27 joiners, and 36 carpenters.)[64]
1677Indigenous
Nations		10,750Estimated indigenous population in and around New France territory 10,750, including 2,150 warriors. (Mohawks 5 villages, 96 lodges, 300 warriors – Oneidas 1 village, 100 lodges, 200 warriors – Onondagas 2 villages, 164 lodges, 350 warriors – Cayugas 3 villages, 100 lodges, 300 warriors – Senecas 4 villages, 324 lodges, 1,000 warriors).[10]
1679Acadia515Majority are from the Poitou region of France.
1681New France9,677New France sees new settlements develop as residents leave Quebec City (population 1,345) and Trois-Rivières (150) with Montreal gaining influence (population 1,418).[64]
1687Newfoundland663French population only.
1695New France13,639Population of Saint John River New Brunswick 49.
1698New France15,355English population of Newfoundland at the time 1,500.

18th century

Year Area/colony Population[77][90] Notes[64]
1705Newfoundland520French population only
1706New France16,417Covering territory that is now situated partly in the United States of America and partly in Canada.
1712New France18,440Married – men 2,786, women 2,588. Unmarried – males 6,716, females 6,350.[64]
1718New France22,983Married – men 3,662, women 3,926. Unmarried – males 7,911, females 7,484.[64]
1720St.John Island
(Prince Edward Island)		10017 families
1730New France33,682Married – men 6,050, women 5,728. Unmarried – males 11,314, females 10,590.[64]
1736Indigenous
Nations		17,575Estimated population of First Nations in New France that are now within Canada – Abenakis 2,950 – Algonquins, Ottawas, Potawatomi, Saulteaux and Crees 11,475 – Wyandot-Huron 1,300 – Iroquois 1,850.[10]
1737New France39,970Married – men 7,378, women 6,804. Unmarried – males 13,330, females 12,458.[64]
1741Newfoundland6,000English population only.
1749Nova Scotia2,544Married – men, 509; women 509. Unmarried – men, 660; women, 3. Children-boys, 228; girls, 216. Servants-men, 277; women, 142.[64]
1749Île-Royale
(Cape Breton)		1,000French population only.
1749Acadian Mainland (New Brunswick)1,000French population only.
1749Acadian Peninsula13,000French population only.
1749St. John Island
(Prince Edward Island)		1,000French population only.
1752Acadia (non-French)4,203British and German population only. Men over sixteen years old, 574; women over sixteen years old, 607. Children boys, 1,899; children girls, 1,123.
1760New France70,000Expulsion of the Acadians three-quarters of the Acadian population of 18,000 forcibly relocated between 1755 and 1764.[91]
1765Province of Quebec (1763–91)69,810French and English populations.
1775Province of Quebec (1763–91)90,000French and English populations.
1785Newfoundland10,244French and English populations.
1790Nova Scotia30,000French and English populations.
1797St. John Island
(Prince Edward Island)		4,500French and English populations.

19th century

Year Area/Province Population[92]
1806New Brunswick35,000 –1806Prince Edward Island9,676
1806Upper Canada70,718
1806Lower Canada250,000
1806Newfoundland26,505
1807Nova Scotia65,000
1822Prince Edward Island24,600
1823Newfoundland52,157
1824Upper Canada150,066
1824New Brunswick74,176
1825Upper Canada157,923
1825Lower Canada479,288
1831Lower Canada553,134
1832Upper Canada263,554
1832Newfoundland59,280
1833Prince Edward Island32,292
1844Canada East697,084
1845Newfoundland96,295
1846Assiniboia (North-West Territories)4,871
1848Canada West725,879
1861Colony of Vancouver Island3,024
1869Newfoundland146,536
1871British Columbia36,247
1871Manitoba25,228
1871Ontario1,620,851
1871Quebec1,191,516
1871New Brunswick285,594
1871Nova Scotia387,800 –1871Prince Edward Island94,021
1871Northwest Territories48,000
Year Canada as a whole Population Provinces/Area[10]
1871Indigenous population102,358Prince Edward Island 323 – Nova Scotia 1,666 – New Brunswick 1,403 – Quebec 6,988 – Ontario 12,978 – British Columbia 23,000 – Rupert's Land 33,500 – Manitoba 500 and Labrador and the Arctic Watersheds 22,000

Canada as a whole since confederation

Census data by years

Historical population
YearPop.±%
18713,689,257—    
18814,324,810+17.2%
18914,833,239+11.8%
19015,371,315+11.1%
19117,206,643+34.2%
19218,787,949+21.9%
193110,374,196+18.1%
194111,506,655+10.9%
195114,009,429+21.8%
196118,238,247+30.2%
197121,568,311+18.3%
197622,992,604+6.6%
198124,343,181+5.9%
198625,309,331+4.0%
199127,296,859+7.9%
199628,846,761+5.7%
200130,007,094+4.0%
200631,612,897+5.4%
201133,476,688+5.9%
201635,151,728+5.0%
202136,991,981+5.2%
[95][96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103]

Data projections

In 2006, Statistics Canada projected for the decade 2021 to 2031 the population to grow by more than 5 million, or more than 10%.[104] Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 per cent overall growth.[9] The 2016 Canadian census counted a total population of 35.1 million,[7] or 1.5 million under the 2006 projection.

In October 2020, the Trudeau government announced its plans to bring in more than 1.2 million immigrants over the subsequent three years, to catch up to the high-growth scenario.[105]

Population projections[104]
High-growth scenario
YearPop.±%
201133,470,000—    
201636,540,000+9.2%
202139,110,000+7.0%
202641,750,000+6.8%
203144,430,000+6.4%
203647,130,000+6.1%
204149,900,000+5.9%
204652,910,000+6.0%
205156,070,000+6.0%
205659,400,000+5.9%
206163,000,000+6.1%

Modern population distribution

Population density of Canadian provinces and territories, 2021
  >25 people/km2
  15-24.9 people/km2
  10-14.9 people/km2
  5-9.9 people/km2
  1-4.9 people/km2
  <1 people/km2

By province and territory

By cities and municipalities

First Nations

See also

References

  1. ↑ Peter H. McMurry; Marjorie F. Shepherd; James S. Vickery (2004). Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment. Cambridge University Press. p. 391. ISBN 978-0-521-84287-7. Archived from the original on 12 April 2016.
  2. ↑ "Environment – Greenhouse Gases (Greenhouse Gas Emissions per Person)". Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. 2010. Archived from the original on 27 February 2014. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
  3. ↑ "Population estimates quarterly". Statistics Canada. 22 March 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  4. ↑ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (11 July 2018). "Canada's population clock (real-time model)". www150.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  5. ↑ "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population". 9 February 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2022.
  6. ↑ "Canadians in Context – Population Size and Growth". Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. 2010. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2010.
  7. 1 2 Press, Jordan (8 February 2017). "Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver now home to one-third of Canadians: census". CTV News. Retrieved 8 February 2017.
  8. ↑ "2016 Census: Population and dwelling counts". Statistics Canada. 8 February 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2017.
  9. 1 2 "Energy Efficiency Trends in Canada, 1990 to 2008". Natural Resources Canada. 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2015.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 "Censuses of Canada 1665 to 1871: Aboriginal peoples". Statistics Canada. 2008. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
  11. ↑ "Censuses of Canada 1665 to 1871: Aboriginal peoples". www150.statcan.gc.ca.
  12. ↑ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (3 April 2013). "The aboriginal population and the Census : 120 years of information, 1871-1991 / Gustave Goldmann". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  13. ↑ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (3 April 2013). "1961 Census of Canada : population : vol. I - part 2 = 1961 Recensement du Canada : population : vol. I - partie 2. Ethnic groups". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  14. ↑ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (3 April 2013). "1971 Census of Canada : population : vol. I - part 3 = Recensement du Canada 1971 : population : vol. I - partie 3. Ethnic groups". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  15. ↑ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (3 April 2013). "1991 employment equity data highlights". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  16. ↑ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (4 June 2019). "Data tables, 1996 Census Total Population by Age Groups (11) and Sex (3), Showing Aboriginal Groups (8), for Canada, Provinces, Territories and Census Metropolitan Areas, 1996 Census (20% Sample Data)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  17. ↑ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (23 December 2013). "2001 Census Topic-based tabulations Aboriginal Identity (8), Age Groups (11B) and Sex (3) for Population, for Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2001 Census - 20% Sample Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  18. ↑ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (1 May 2020). "2006 Census Topic-based tabulations Aboriginal Identity (8), Sex (3) and Age Groups (12) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census - 20% Sample Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  19. ↑ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (23 January 2019). "2011 National Household Survey: Data tables Aboriginal Identity (8), Age Groups (20), Registered or Treaty Indian Status (3) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  20. ↑ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (17 June 2019). "Aboriginal Identity (9), Age (20), Registered or Treaty Indian Status (3) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2016 Census - 25% Sample Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
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  25. ↑ Michael R. Haines; Richard H. Steckel (2000). A Population History of North America. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-521-49666-7.
  26. ↑ Garrick Alan Bailey; William C ... Sturtevant; Smithsonian Institution (U S ) (2008). Handbook of North American Indians: Indians in Contemporary Society. Government Printing Office. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-16-080388-8.
  27. ↑ David L. Preston (2009). The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667-1783. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-8032-2549-7.
  28. ↑ William G. Dean; Geoffrey J. Matthews (1998). Concise Historical Atlas of Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8020-4203-3.
  29. ↑ R. G. Robertson (2001). Rotting Face : Smallpox and the American Indian. University of Nebraska. ISBN 978-0-87004-497-7.
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  31. ↑ "Aboriginal Peoples in Canada: First Nations People, Métis and Inuit". Statistics Canada. 2012.
  32. ↑ David L. Preston (2009). The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667-1783. U of Nebraska Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8032-2549-7.
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  34. ↑ Thomas F. McIlwraith; Edward K. Muller (2001). North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-4616-3960-2.
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